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CONFUCIUS 

From  a  drawing  by  Kiechu  Yamada,  Based  upon  an  Ancient  Copy  c 

the  Traditional  Portrait 

Reproduced  by  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  Paul  Cams 


THE    ETHICS    OF 
CONFUCIUS 

THE  SAYINGS  OF  THE    MASTER   AND    HIS 

DISCIPLES    UPON    THE    CONDUCT 

OF  "THE  SUPERIOR  MAN" 

ARRANGED    ACCORDING    TO    THE    PLAN    OF    CONFUCIUS 
WITH   RUNNING  COMMENTARY    BY 

MILES    MENANDER    DAWSON 

MEMBER    OF   THE    CONFUCIAN    SOCIETY    OF   CHINA 


WITH    A    FOREWORD   BY 

WU  TING  FANG 

LATE    MINISTER    TO    THE    UNITED   STATES    FROM    CHINA 


PREPARED   UNDER  THE  AUSPICES  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
INSTITUTE  FOR  SCIENTIFIC  RESEARCH 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

NEW   YORK   AND    LONDON 

TTbe  Iknlcfeerbocfcer  {press 


Copyright,  19  is 

by 

MILES    MENANDER    DAWSON 

Third  Impression 


TTbe  tmicherboclier  pxtet,  •Kew  Sorts 


Go 

MISS  JESSIE  B.  RITTENHOUSE, 

discriminating  critic  and  unfailing  friend, 

to  whose  appreciation 

the  author's  perseverance  in  the  arduous  labor 

of  collecting  and  collating  the  text  for  this  book 

and  preparing  it  for  its  readers  is  chiefly  due, 

This  Volume  is  Gratefully  Inscribed. 


FOREWORD 

When  Confucius  died,  it  is  recorded  that  his 
last  words  were  regrets  that  none  among  the 
rulers  then  living  possessed  the  sagacity  requisite 
to  a  proper  appreciation  of  his  ethical  philosDphy 
and  teachings.  He  died  unhonoured, — died  in 
his  seventy-third  year,  479  B.C.,  feeling  in  the 
flickering  beats  of  his  failing  heart  that  his  inspir- 
ing pleas  for  truth  and  justice,  industry  and  self- 
denial,  moderation  and  public  duty,  though  then 
without  having  awakened  men's  impulses,  would 
yet  stir  the  depths  of  the  social  life  of  his  land. 

Only  the  future  will  tell  how  far  his  staunch 
guide-ropes  to  correct  conduct  will  be  extended 
within  China,  and  even  be  threaded  through  the 
dark  and  dangerous  passages  of  existence  in  the 
lands  of  the  Occident  to  lead  humanity  safely 
to  that  elevated  plane  which  the  lofty  ideals  of 
the  philosopher  aimed  at  establishing.  Not  yet 
has  the  world,  sagacious  as  it  is,  appreciated  the 
wealth  of  gentleness,  the  profound  forces  for  good, 
the  uplifting  influences  embodied  in  the  teachings 
of  the  ancient  sage,  whose  aim,  reduced  to  its 
simplest  definition,  was  to  show  "how  to  get 
through  life  like  a  courteous  gentleman." 

A  great  step  forward  in  the  dissemination  of  the 
doctrine  in  foreign  lands  is  taken  in  "The  Superior 
Man."  Lofty  as  appear  the  ideals,  in  the  usual 
translations,  they  lose  the  effect  on  the   average 

v 


vi  Foreword 

reader  that  the  application  which  Mr.  Dawson 
has  now  given  them  must  create.  Driving  home 
the  principles  by  careful  compilation  under  differ- 
ent headings,  the  author  causes  the  scheme  of 
ethical  conduct  to  attract  and  appeal;  and  the 
blessings  it  has  bestowed  in  the  vast  expanses  of 
China  may  yet  give  comfort  to  many  people  in 
many  other  lands. 

Confucius  strove  to  make  the  human  being 
good — a  good  father,  a  good  mother,  a  good  son, 
a  good  daughter,  a  good  friend,  a  good  citizen. 
Though  his  truths  were  unpalatable  at  the  time 
of  their  enunciation,  they  have  lived  to  bear  good 
fruit,  despite  the  desperate  efforts  of  Emperor 
Tsin  Shi-hwang  to  destroy  them  by  fire,  and  it  is 
gratifying  to  see  that  a  still  wider  sphere  is  being 
more  and  more  developed  for  them  in  the  West. 

The  movement  that  is  now  being  energized  in 
China  to  make  the  doctrine  more  familiar  to  the 
people,  may  also  find  reflection  in  foreign  lands. 
"  The  Superior  Man"  will  surely  help  the  struggler 
in  the  mire  of  complexity  to  find  his  way  out  to 
the  clean,  substantial  foothold  of  manliness  and 
integrity. 


Shanghai,  China, 
January  29,  igi2. 


INTRODUCTION 

WORKS   OF  CONFUCIUS   AND  CHIEF   FOLLOWERS 

The  ethical  and  political  precepts  of  Confucius 
are  not  well  known  in  Occidental  countries,  even 
to  most  of  those  who  give  special  attention  to  these 
subjects;  and  of  what  is  known,  much,  indeed 
most,  is  confused  with  the  notion  that  Confucius 
taught  a  religion  in  our  sense  of  that  term. 

Yet  these  ethical  teachings,  which  are  almost 
purely  secular,  have  for  more  than  2000  years 
been  accepted  by  a  larger  number  of  human  beings 
than  those  of  any  other  teacher.  This,  also,  not- 
withstanding that  the  peoples  who  so  receive 
Confucian  morals  as  their  guide  are  of  the  most 
various  views  concerning  religion,  i.  e.,  for  in- 
stance, are  Buddhists,  Mahometans,  Taoists,  Shin- 
toists,  etc.  No  other  ethical  system,  whether  of 
religious  origin,  or  of  secular,  has  ever  been  accepta- 
ble to  persons  professing  religious  convictions 
so  diverse. 

And  his  political  maxims  have  been  regarded 

as  fundamental,  and  knowledge  of  them,  as  well  as 

of  his  ethics,  has  been  insisted  upon  as  a  prime 

essential  to  political  preferment,  in  a  nation  which, 

vii 


viii  Introduction 

despite  the  not  infrequent  shifting  of  ruling  dynas- 
ties, has  the  unparalleled  record  of  continuing 
from  prehistoric  times  to  the  present  without  a 
single  break. 

In  view  of  their  obvious  importance  and  of  the 
availability  of  translations  of  the  Chinese  classics, 
the  question  naturally  arises:  Why  the  prevailing 
want  of  information  concerning  the  works  of  Con- 
fucius, his  disciples  and  followers? 

Though  due  in  part,  no  doubt,  to  Confucianism 
not  being  a  religion  and  so  receiving  but  scant 
attention  from  students  of  comparative  religions, 
to  the  relatively  small  interest  of  Occidentals, 
until  very  recently,  in  things  Chinese,  and  to  the 
somewhat  expensive  editions  in  which  alone  the 
best  translation  is  available,  the  want  of  informa- 
tion concerning  these  teachings  is,  in  my  opinion, 
chiefly  due  to  this :  They  are  found  in  large  volumes 
consisting  of  ancient  Chinese  classics  which  Con- 
fucius edited,  cf  a  collection  of  his  sayings,  of 
certain  books  by  his  disciples  that  purport  to  give 
his  precepts  accurately,  in  one  book  by  his  great 
apostle,  Mencius,  *  who  more  than  a  century  later 
led  the  revival  of  Confucian  ethics  which  has 
continued  to  this  day,  and  in  certain  books  by  later 
followers;  and  these  books  consist,  in  varying 
proportions,  ranging  from  a  minimum  of  more  than 

'Mencius  said  of  himself:  "  Although  I  could  not  be  a  dis- 
ciple of  Confucius  myself,  I  have  endeavoured  to  cultivate  my 
virtue  by  means  of  others  who  were."  (Bk.iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xxii., 
v.  2.) 


Introduction  ix 

half  to  a  maximum  of  at  least  nineteen-twentieths, 
of  discourses  upon  ceremonies,  customs,  and  the 
like,  possibly  of  great  interest  to  dwellers  in  China 
or  Japan,  but  almost  absolutely  devoid  of  interest 
to  most  Occidentals. 

These  ceremonies  and  customs,  already  firmly 
intrenched  when  Confucius  was  born,  doubtless 
constitute  a  very  rich  and  expressive  language, 
crystallized  into  conduct;  but  it  is  one  which  is 
wholly  unintelligible  and  even  repellent  to  persons 
of  Western  origin. 

The  only  form,  other  than  this,  in  which  the 
ethical  teachings  of  Confucius  and  his  followers 
have  been  presented,  is  through  books  about  these 
teachings,  i.  e.,  presenting,  in  the  language  of 
these  modern  authors,  what  they  consider  Con- 
fucius and  his  followers  have  taught. 

The  aim  in  preparing  this  book  is  to  put  before 
Occidental  readers,  in  the  words  of  the  Chinese 
sage  and  his  followers,  as  translated,  everything 
concerning  ethics  and  statecraft  contained  in  the 
Confucian  classics  which  is  likely  to  interest  them, 
omitting  nothing  of  importance.  This  has  been 
undertaken  in  the  following  fashion: 

Every  such  passage  has  been  extracted  from 
all  the  works  comprising  the  Confucian  classics 
and  several  from  the  more  important  works  of 
early  Confucian  scholars. 

These  have  been  arranged  by  topics  in  accord- 
ance with  a  scheme  laid  down  as  that  of  Confucius 
himself  in  "The  Great  Learning." 


x  Introduction 

] .  The  passages,  so  quoted,  have  been  thrown  into 
the  order  deemed  most  effective  to  demonstrate 
and  illustrate  the  doctrine  of  Confucius. 

To  sustain  the  interest  unbroken,  the  passages 
quoted  are  connected  by  a  running  narrative, 
showing  briefly  the  relationship  of  one  with  the 
other,  stating  from  what  book  taken  and  by  whom 
enunciated,  and  most  sparingly  accompanied  by 
quotations  from  other  moralists,  ancient  or 
modern. 

This  book  makes  no  claim  to  be  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  text,  or  of  the  commentaries  on  the 
text,  of  the  Chinese  sage;  and  much  less  to  epitom- 
ize a  critical  investigation  and  collation  of  original 
texts.  It  accepts  the  generally  received  canon  of 
the  sayings  and  writings  of  Confucius  as  authentic, 
and  deals  exclusively  with  their  significance  as 
viewed  scientifically  in  these  days.  Thus  consid- 
ered, the  sayings  of  Confucius  are  seen  to  exhibit 
wonderful  foresight  and  insight. 

Indeed,  it  is  a  continual  marvel  that,  like 
Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  Confucius  should 
have  come  so  near  to  laying  down,  formally,  the 
lines  which  scientific  investigation  must  pursue; 
and  yet  that,  as  generation  after  generation  passed 
away,  the  attitude  of  many  of  the  disciples  of  each 
of  these  should  have  become  more  and  more  that 
of  blind  and  even  superstitious  imitation  of  the 
great  teacher,  and  almost  scrupulous  avoidance 
of  the  application  of  his  principles  in  the  never- 
ending   search   for   truth.     This   seems   to   have 


Introduction  xi 

commenced  with  the  immediate  disciples  of  the 
sage,  and  by  the  time  of  Mencius  it  was  already 
a  species  of  idolatry,  expressed  in  such  sayings 
as  this: 

"Since  first  there  were  living  men  until  now, 
there  has  never  been  another  Confucius."  (Bk. 
ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  23.) 

"From  the  birth  of  mankind  till  now,  there  has 
never  been  another  like  our  Master."  (Bk.  ii., 
pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  27.) 

So  also,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the 
very  name,  "philosopher,"  i.  e.,  "lover  of  wisdom," 
which  Socrates  gave  to  himself  as  one  who  did  not 
pretend  to  be  wise  already,  but  who  merely  sought 
wisdom  earnestly,  soon  lost  its  true  meaning,  as 
veneration  for  Socrates,  Plato,  or  Aristotle  took 
the  place  of  the  child-like,  simple,  open-minded 
search  for  truth  which  they  inculcated  as  the  ob- 
vious duty  of  intelligent  beings.  In  other  words, 
the  positive  teaching  of  these  great  minds  became 
in  due  time  prescriptive  authority  in  the  view  of 
their  followers,  while  the  essential  factor  in  the 
thought  of  each  of  the  great  teachers,  that  the 
mind  should  be  open — should,  in  the  words  of  St. 
Paul,  "try  all  things  and  hold  fast  that  which  is 
good" — gave  way  to  a  prohibition  against  ques- 
tioning any  declaration  of  the  Master,  and  later 
against  questioning  any  of  the  accepted  derivations 
and  corollaries  of  the  authoritative  sayings. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  Confucius  never 
made  claim  to  be  inspired;  to  be  sure,  he  said  of 


xil  Introduction 

himself,  "If  Heaven  had  wished  to  let  this  cause 
of  truth  perish,  then  I,  a  mortal  yet  to  be  born, 
should  not  have  got  such  a  relation  to  that  cause," 
but  this  was  rather  a  declaration  of  the  universal- 
ity of  divine  providence  than  a  claim  of  special 
inspiration. 

Later,  however,  the  commentators  virtually 
claimed  it  for  him,  i.  e.,  that  he  was  "divinely 
sent,"  as  in  the  Annotation  of  Kung-Yang  quoting 
the  Adjunct  of  the  Spring  and  Autumn  and  also 
in  the  Adjunct  of  the  Hsiao  King,  in  which  Con- 
fucius is  represented  as  reporting  to  Heaven  the 
completion  of  his  writings  and  as  receiving  divine 
approval  in  the  form  of  a  red  rainbow  arching 
down  and  becoming  transformed  into  yellow  jade 
with  words  carved  upon  it. 

This  book  is  written  to  afford  others  opportun- 
ity for  the  same  inspiring  understanding  of  the 
true  nature  of  the  Confucian  conception  of  good 
conduct  as  an  encouragement  of  independent, 
clear  thinking  concerning  the  purposes  of  life  and 
what  may  be  done  with  it,  which  met  so  warm  a 
welcome  in  my  own  mind  when  I  first  fortunately 
chanced  upon  a  really  good  translation  of  the 
Analects  of  Confucius.  What  is  here  attempted  is 
but  an  unworthy  recognition  of  the  great  benefit, 
which,  across  twenty-five  centuries,  the  Chinese 
sage  conferred  upon  me. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  various  persons  who  have 
aided  me  with  criticisms  and  suggestions;  but 
very   especially   to   Chen    Huan    Chang,    Ph.D. 


Introduction  xiii 

(Columbia),  Chin  Shih  of  1904  a.d.  (i.e.,  winner 
of  the  prize  in  the  highest  competitive  examina- 
tion in  China  on  the  teachings  of  Confucius), 
formerly  Secretary  of  the  Grand  Secretariat  at 
Pekin,  now  President  of  the  Confucian  Society 
in  China  and  leader  of  the  successful  movement 
there  to  restore  public  recognition  of  Confucian 
ethics  and  observances.  Dr.  Chen  has  looked 
up  for  me  all  doubtful  interpretations  of  texts, 
advising  me  of  the  variant  views  and  enabling 
me  to  choose  among  them.  In  general,  and  with 
almost  no  exceptions,  the  commonly  accepted 
meaning  is  given. 

THE   WORKS    OF    CONFUCIUS,    HIS   DISCIPLES,    AND 
MOST  IMPORTANT  FOLLOWERS 

Including  Ancient  Books  Edited  by  Him,  Books 
of  His  Sayings,  and  Accounts  of  His  Teachings 
by  His  Disciples  and  by  Early  Apostles  and 
Commentators. 

Confucius  was  born  in  552  B.C.  and  died  in  479 
B.C.  His  name  was  K'ung  Ch'in  Chung-ni,  of 
which  K'ung  was  the  family  name,  Ch'in  the 
personal  (i.e.,  what  we  call  Christian)  name,  and 
Chung-ni  the  special  name  given  upon  reaching 
full  age.  He  was  called  K'ung  Fu  Tse  later,  the 
appellation  Fu  Tse  meaning  "Master";  and  this 
has  been  Latinized  into  Confucius. 

I.     The  actual  authorship  of  but  one  book  is 


xlv  Introduction 

ascribed  to  him,  viz:  Ch'un  Ch'in,  "Spring  and 
Autumn"  (English  Edition,  vol.  v.,  "Chinese 
Classics"). 

This  book  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  Con- 
fucius himself,  in  his  seventy-second  year,  and  to 
have  been  designed  by  him  to  serve  as  an  epitome 
of  his  teachings  upon  all  ethical,  social,  and  reli- 
gious subjects.  At  least,  Mencius  so  speaks  of  it. 
The  book,  in  a  different  form  and  known  as  "The 
Annals  of  Lu,"  was  in  existence  before  Confucius, 
and  his  task  seems,  after  all,  to  have  been  to  edit 
and  amplify  it.  The  work  as  it  has  come  down 
to  us,  however,  undoubtedly  unchanged  since  the 
Han  dynasty,  is  a  bare  record  of  events,"  almost 
utterly  devoid  of  instruction  and  even  of  interest. 

2.  A  collection  of  conversations  with  Con- 
fucius, containing  many  of  his  most  important 
sayings,  was  made  by  his  disciples  after  his  death. 
It  is  known  as : 

i  Lun  Yii,  "The  Analects,"  translated  by  James 
Legge,  and  published  in  "The  Sacred  Books  of 
the  East." 

Several  important  books  or  collections  of  books, 
already  ancient  when  Confucius  was  born  and 
regarded  as  classics,  were  edited  by  Confucius  and 
further  edited  by  his  early  disciples.      These  are: 

3.  Yi  King,  the  "Book  of  Changes." 

4.  Hsiao  King,  the  "Book  of  Filial  Piety." 

5.  Shu  King,  the  "Book  of  History." 

6.  Shi  King,  the  "Book  of  Poetry,"  also  called 
"The  Odes." 


Introduction  xv 

7.  Li  Ki,  the  "Book  of  Ceremonies." 

All  of  these  were  translated  by  James  Legge 
and  published  in  "The  Sacred  Books  of  the 
East." 

The  last  mentioned  is  also  often  called  "  Younger 
Tai's  Record  of  Rites,"  and  it  is  affirmed  that  the 
"Li-Ching,"  said  to  be  an  older  and  greatly  vari- 
ant edition,  should  be  accepted  instead.  In  this 
book  or  collection  of  books  are  comprised  two  of 
very  special  importance: 

8.  "The  Great  Learning,"  said  to  have  been 
committed  to  writing  by  Tse-Tse,  the  grandson 
of  Confucius,  from  his  recollections  of  the  teach- 
ings of  his  grandfather  and  from  reports  of  the 
same  by  his  father  and  other  disciples  of  Con- 
fucius. His  text  is  elucidated  by  commentaries 
in  the  "Li  Ki."  This  book  has  also  come  down 
separately. 

9.  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  also  the  work 
of  disciples  of  Confucius  and  their  early  successors. 
This  has  also  come  down  separately. 

There  is  also  the  very  valuable  volume  of  the 
sayings  of  Meng  Tse,  the  great  apostle  of  Con- 
fucianism in  the  second  century  later — whose 
name  is  Latinized  into: 

10.  Mencius. 

This  Book  of  Mencius  was  also  translated  by 
James  Legge  and  is  published  in  "The  Sacred 
Books  of  the  East." 

"The  Four  Books,"  meaning  thereby  the  ele- 
ments and  very  core  of  Confucian  doctrine,  is  the 


xvi  Introduction 

name  given  to  "The  Analects,"  "The  Great  Learn- 
ing," ' '  The  Doctrine  of  the  Mean , "  and ' '  Mencius. ' ' 

"The  Five  Classics"  or  "The  Five  Canons" 
is  the  name  applied  to  the  "Yi  King,"  "Hsiao 
King,"  "Shu  King,"  "Shi  King,"  and  "Li  Ki" 
(or  "  Li-Ching  "),  collectively.  The  word  "  King  " 
means  "classic"  or  "canon." 

Other  works  of  Confucian  commentators  and 
scholars  which  are  occasionally  quoted  from,  are: 

11.  Shuo  Yuan   ( ' '  Park  of  Narratives  " ) . 

12.  Hsun  Tze. 

13.  Ku-liang  Chuan  ("Ku-liang's  Commen- 
tary"). 

14.  "Many  Dewdrops  of  the  Spring  and 
Autumn." 

15.  Pan-Ku. 

16.  "History  of  Han  Dynasty." 

17.  "History  of  Latter  Han  Dynasty." 

18.  "Narratives  of  Nations." 

19.  Kung-Yang  Chuan  ("  Kung- Yang's  Com- 
mentary" ). 

The  citations  of  this  book  are  for  the  most  part 
given  by  the  name  of  the  work,  the  name  or  num- 
ber of  the  chapter  and  other  grand  division  of  the 
work  and  the  verse,  to  the  end  that  any  edition 
in  Chinese  or  any  translation  into  English  or  into 
another  language  may  be  conveniently  referred  to. 

M.  M.  D. 


CONFUCIUS 

K'ung Fu-tsze,  "the philosopher K'ung,"  whose 
name  has  been  Latinized  into  Confucius,  was  born 
in  the  year  550  (or  551)  B.C.  His  father,  Shuh- 
liang  Heih  was  an  officer  in  charge  of  the  district 
of  Tsow  in  the  State  of  Lu  and  had  been  famous  for 
his  strength  and  daring;  he  was  of  the  K'ung 
family  and  lineally  descended  from  Hwang-Ti, 
an  almost  legendary  character  of  ancient  China. 

At  the  age  of  seventy,  Shuh-liang  Heih,  the 
father  of  ten  children  of  whom  but  one  was  a  son 
and  he  a  cripple,  sought  a  wife  in  the  Yen  family 
where  there  were  three  daughters.  The  two  elder 
of  them  demurred  when  apprised  by  their  father 
of  the  old  man's  suit;  but  the  youngest,  Ching- 
tsai,  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  offered  to  abide 
by  her  father's  judgment.  The  following  year 
Confucius  was  born  and  three  years  later  she  was 
a  widow. 

Confucius  was  married,  in  accordance  with 
Chinese  custom,  at  nineteen  and  accepted  public 
employment  as  a  keeper  of  stores  and  later  as 
superintendent  of  parks  and  herds.  At  twenty- 
two,  however,  he  commenced  his  life-work  as  a 
teacher,  and  gradually  a  group  of  students,  eager 
to  be  instructed  in  the  classics  and  in  conduct  and 
government,  gathered  about  him. 


xviii  Confucius 

He  was  a  contemporary  of  Lao-tsze,  the  founder 
of  Taoism,  who,  however,  was  of  the  next  previous 
generation.  Confucius  is  said  to  have  had  several 
interviews  with  him  about  517  B.C. 

Up  to  the  age  of  fifty-two,  he  was  not  much 
in  public  life.  He  was  then  made  chief  magistrate 
of  the  city  of  Chung- tu,  which  so  thrived  and 
improved  under  his  care,  that  the  Duke  of  Lu 
appointed  him  minister  of  crime  which  resulted 
in  a  great  reduction  of  wrongdoing.  The  Duke 
accepting  a  present  of  female  musicians  and  giving 
himself  over  to  dissipation,  Confucius  withdrew 
and  wandered  among  the  various  states,  giving 
instruction  as  opportunity  offered. 

His  disciples  during  his  lifetime  rose  to  three 
thousand  and  of  these  some  seventy  or  eighty 
were  highly  esteemed  by  him. 

Confucius  when  he  set  forth  on  his  wanderings 
was  fifty-six;  it  was  thirteen  years  before  he 
returned  to  Lu. 

In  482  B.C.,  he  lost  his  only  son;  in  481  B.C., 
his  favourite  student,  Yen  Hwuy,  and  in  478  B.C. 
Tsze-lu,  another  of  his  favourites,  passed  away, 
and  the  same  year  Confucius  himself  died  at  the 
age  of  seventy-two. 

He  was  buried  in  the  K'ung  cemetery  outside 
the  gates  of  K'iuh-fow,  where  most  of  his  descen- 
dants, said  to  number  more  than  forty  thousand, 
still  live.  His  tomb  is  yet  preserved  and  is  annu- 
ally visited  by  vast  numbers  of  his  followers. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword  by  Wu  Ting  Fang  .  v 

Introduction vii 


Works  of  Confucius  and  his  Chief  Fol- 
lowers      

Confucius:  Sketch  of  Life  . 

CHAPTER 

I.    What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man 

The  Art  of  Living 
Mental  Morality   . 
The  Investigation  of  Phenomena 
Learning       .... 
Genius  and  Inspiration 
Sincerity       .... 
Rectification  of  Purpose 
Rectified  Purpose 

II.     Self-Development 

The  Will       . 

Fortitude 

Poise   . 

Self-Control 

Moderation 

Righteousness 

Earnestness 

Humility 

Aspiration     . 

Prudence 

six 


xm 
xvii 

I 

6 

12 

16 
20 

27 
29 

35 
43 

48 
48 
53 

58 
61 
64 
69 

76 
80 

85 
91 


xx  Contents 

CHAPTER 

III.  General  Human  Relations 

The  Rules  of  Propriety 
Propriety  of  Demeanour 
Propriety  of  Deportment 
Propriety  of  Speech 
Propriety  of  Conduct     . 
Propriety  of  Example     . 
Sexual  Propriety  . 

IV.  The  Family 

Perequisities  to  its  Regulation 
Wedlock       .... 
Divorce        .... 
Parenthood  .... 
Essentials  of  Filial  Piety 
Pious  Regard  for  Living  Parents 
Pious  Observances  after  the  Death 
of  Parents 

V.     The  State  .... 

The  Foundation  of  Government 
The  Function  of  Government 
Government  Exists  for  the  Benefit 

of  the  Governed 
The  Essentials  of  Good  Government 
The  Nourishment  of  the  People 
The  Middle  Path  in  Political  Eco- 
nomy 
Provisions  for  the  Aged,  Widows, 

Orphans,  and  Other  Unfortunates  201 
Taxation,  Innocent  and  Destructive  203 
Military  Equipment       .  .  .     207 


Contents  xxi 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Kingly  Qualities    .  .  .  .210 

Power  of  Official  Example       .  .216 

Universal  Education      .  .  .221 

Law  and  Order      .  .  .  .231 

Duty     Respecting    Acceptance    of 

Office 238 

Government  Is  by  the  Consent  of 

the  Governed  ....  241 
The  Right  to  Depose  the  Ruler       .     245 

VI.     Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts    .         .     248 

The  Fine  Arts  in  General        .  .     248 

Poetry  and  Letters         .  .  .     251 

Music 255 

Ceremonies  .  .  .  .  .263 

VII.     Universal  Relations  .         .         .267 

Death  and  Immortality                    .  267 
Communion    with    Departed    An- 
cestors      .          .          •          •          .271 

Spiritual  Beings  and  Spiritual  Power  280 

Heaven         .....  284 

Providence   .....  288 

God 293 

Appendix^ 299 

The    "Great    Principle"    of 
Confucius.     By  Dr.  Chen  Huan 
Chang 

Index 3°7 


The  Ethics  of  Confucius 


CHAPTER  I 

WHAT  CONSTITUTES  THE   SUPERIOR  MAN 

The  central  idea  of  Confucius  is  that  every 
normal  human  being  cherishes  the  aspiration  to 
become  a  superior  man — superior  to  his  fellows, 
if  possible,  but  surely  superior  to  his  own  past  and 
present  self.  This  does  not  more  than  hint  at 
perfection  as  a  goal ;  and  it  is  said  of  him  that  one 
of  the  subjects  concerning  which  the  Master 
rarely  spoke,  was  "perfect  virtue."  (Analects, 
bk.  ix.,  c.  i.)  He  also  said,  "They  who  know 
virtue,  are  few"  (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  iii.),  and 
was  far  from  teaching  a  perfectionist  doctrine. 
It  refers  rather  to  the  perpetually  relative,  the 
condition  of  being  superior  to  that  to  which  one 
may  be  superior,  be  it  high  or  low, — that  hopeful 
possibility  which  has  ever  lured  mankind  toward 
higher  things. 

This  accords  well  with  the  ameliorating  and 
progressive  principle  of  evolution  which  in  these 
days  offers  a  substantial  reward,  both  for  a  man 

i 


2  The  Superior  Man 

and  for  his  progeny,  if  he  will  but  cultivate  higher 
and  more  useful  traits  and  qualities.  The  aim 
to  excel,  if  respected  of  all,  approved  and  accepted 
by  common  consent,  would  appeal  to  every  child 
and,  logically  presented  to  its  mind  and  enforced 
by  universal  recognition  of  its  validity,  would 
become  a  conviction  and  a  scheme  for  the  art  of 
living,  of  transforming  power  and  compelling 
vigour. 

In  various  sayings  Confucius,  his  disciples,  and 
Mencius  present  the  attributes  of  the  superior 
man,  whom  the  sage  adjures  his  disciples  to  admire 
without  ceasing,  to  emulate  without  turning,  and 
to  imitate  without  let  or  hindrance.  These  are 
some  of  them : 

Purpose:  "The  superior  man  learns  in  order 
to  attain  to  the  utmost  of  his  principles."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xix.,  c.  vii.) 

Poise  :  "The  superior  man  in  his  thought  does 
not  go  out  of  his  place."  (Analects,  bk.  xiv., 
c.  xxviii.) 

Self-sufficiency :  "What  the  superior  man  seeks, 
is  in  himself;  what  the  ordinary1  man  seeks,  is  in 
others."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xx.) 

1 1  have  been  much  concerned  about  the  word  which  should 
be  given  for  the  Chinese  word  appearing  here.  Legge  renders 
it  "mean,"  meaning  thereby  "average."  I  discard  his  word 
as  ambiguous  and  choose  "ordinary"  as  nearest  to  the  idea," 
which  is  "the  average  among  men  who  are  not  superior."  This 
expression  must  not,  however,  be  taken  as  a  term  describing  the 
common  people;  as  will  be  seen,  Confucius  reverenced  them,  as 
in  our  age  did  Abraham  Lincoln. 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man   3 

Earnestness  :  "The  superior  man  in  everything 
puts  forth  his  utmost  endeavours. ' '  (Great  Learn- 
ing, ii.,  4.) 

Thoroughness:  "The  superior  man  bends  his 
attention  to  what  is  radical.  That  being  estab- 
lished, all  practical  courses  naturally  grow  up." 
(Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  2.) 

Sincerity:  "The  superior  man  must  make  his 
thoughts  sincere."  (Great  Learning,  vi.,  4.)  "Is 
it  not  his  absolute  sincerity  which  distinguishes 
a  superior  man?"     (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xiii., 

4.) 

Truthfulness  :  "What  the  superior  man  requires 
is  that  in  what  he  says  there  may  be  nothing 
inaccurate."     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  iii.,  v.  7.) 

Purity  of  thought  and  action  :  "The  superior  man 
must  be  watchful  over  himself  when  alone." 
(Great  Learning,  vi.,  2.) 

Love  of  truth  :  "The  object  of  the  superior  man 
is  truth."  (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxi.)  "The  su- 
perior man  is  anxious  lest  he  should  not  get  truth ; 
he  is  not  anxious  lest  poverty  come  upon  him." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxi.) 

Mental  hospitality  :  "The  superior  man  is  catho- 
lic and  not  partisan;  the  ordinary  man  is  parti- 
san and  not  catholic."  (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xiv.) 
"The  superior  man  in  the  world  does  not  set  his 
mind  either  for  anything  or  against  anything;  what 
is  right,  he  will  follow."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  x.) 

Rectitude  :  "The  superior  man  thinks  of  virtue; 
the  ordinary  man  thinks  of  comfort."    (Analects, 


4  The  Superior  Man 

bk.  iv.,  c.  xi.)  "The  mind  of  the  superior  man 
is  conversant  with  righteousness;  the  mind  of  the 
ordinary  man  is  conversant  with  gain."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  iv.,  c.  xxi.)  "The  superior  man  in  all 
things  considers  righteousness  essential."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xv.,  c.  xvii.) 

Prudence:  "The  superior  man  wishes  to  be 
slow  in  his  words  and  earnest  in  his  conduct." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xxiv.) 

Composure:  "The  superior  man  is  satisfied 
and  composed;  the  ordinary  man  is  always  full 
of  distress."  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxxvi.)  "The 
superior  man  may  indeed  have  to  endure  want; 
but  the  ordinary  man,  when  he  is  in  want,  gives 
way  to  unbridled  license."  (Analects,  bk.  xv., 
c.  i.,  v.  3.) 

Fearlessness:  "The  superior  man  has  neither 
anxiety  nor  fear."  (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  1.) 
"When  internal  examination  discovers  nothing 
wrong,  what  is  there  to  be  anxious  about,  what 
is  there  to  fear?"  (Analects,  bk.  xi.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 
"They  sought  to  act  virtuously  and  they  did  so; 
and  what  was  there  for  them  to  repine  about?" 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xiv.,  v.  2.) 

Ease  and  dign  ty  :  ' '  The  superior  man  has  digni- 
fied ease  without  pride;  the  ordinary  man  has 
pride  without  dignified  ease."  (Analects,  bk. 
xiii.,  c.  xxvi.)  "The  superior  man  is  dignified 
and  does  not  wrangle."  (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c. 
xxi.) 

Firmness:  "Refusing   to  surrender  their  wills 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man    5 

or  to  submit  to  any  taint  to  their  persons." 
(Analects,  bk.  xviii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  2.)  "The  superior 
man  is  correctly  firm  and  not  merely  firm." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxvi.)  "Looked  at  from  a 
distance,  he  appears  stern;  when  approached,  he 
is  mild;  when  he  is  heard  to  speak,  his  lan- 
guage is  firm  and  decided."  (Analects,  bk.  xix., 
c.  ix.) 

Lowliness:  "The  superior  man  is  affable  but 
not  adulatory;  the  ordinary  man  is  adulatory  but 
not  affable."     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxiii.) 

Avoidance  of  sycophancy :  "I  have  heard  that 
the  superior  man  helps  the  distressed,  but  he  does 
not  add  to  the  wealth  of  the  rich."  (Analects, 
bk.  vi.,  c.  iii.,  v.  2.) 

Growth:  "The  progress  of  the  superior  man  is 
upward,  the  progress  of  the  ordinary  man  is  down- 
ward." (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxiv.)  "The  su- 
perior man  is  distressed  by  his  want  of  ability; 
he  is  not  distressed  by  men's  not  knowing  him." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xviii.) 

Capacity :  "The  superior  man  cannot  be  known 
in  little  matters  but  may  be  entrusted  with  great 
concerns."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxiii.) 

Openness  :  "The  faults  of  the  superior  man 
are  like  the  sun  and  moon.  He  has  his  faults  and 
all  men  see  them.  He  changes  again  and  all  men 
look  up  to  him."     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  xxi.) 

Benevolence  :  "The  superior  man  seeks  to  de- 
velop the  admirable  qualities  of  men  and  does  not 
seek  to  develop  their  evil  qualities.     The  ordinary 


6  The  Superior  Man 

man  does  the  opposite  of  this."     (Analects,  bk. 
xii.,  c.  xvi.) 

Broadmindedness  : ' '  The  superior  man  honours 
talent  and  virtue  and  bears  with  all.  He  praises 
the  good  and  pities  the  incompetent."  (Analects, 
bk.  xix.,  c.  iii.)  "The  superior  man  does  not 
promote  a  man  on  account  of  his  words,  nor  does 
he  put  aside  good  words  on  account  of  the  man." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxii.) 

Charity  :  "To  be  able  to  judge  others  by  what 
is  in  ourselves,  this  may  be  called  the  art  of  virtue." 
(Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xxviii.,  v.  3.) 

Moderation  :  "The  superior  man  conforms  with 
the  path  of  the  mean."  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
c.  xi.,  v.  3.) 

The  Golden  Ride  :  "When  one  cultivates  to  the 
utmost  the  capabilities  of  his  nature  and  exercises 
them  on  the  principle  of  reciprocity,  he  is  not 
far  from  the  path.  What  you  do  not  want  done 
to  yourself,  do  not  do  unto  others."  (Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,  c.  xiii.,  v.  3.) 

Reserve  power:  "That  wherein  the  superior 
man  cannot  be  equalled  is  simply  this,  his  work 
which  other  men  cannot  see."  (Doctrine  of  the 
Mean,  c.  xxxiii.,  v.  2.) 

The  Art  of  Living.  "The  practice  of  right- 
living  is  deemed  the  highest,  the  practice  of  any 
other  art  lower.  Complete  virtue  takes  first 
place;  the  doing  of  anything  else  whatsoever  is 
subordinate."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  5.) 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man    7 

These  words  from  the  "Li  Ki"  are  the  keynote 
of  the  sage's  teachings. 

Confucius  sets  before  every  man,  as  what  he 
should  strive  for,  his  own  improvement,  the  de- 
velopment of  himself, — a  task  without  surcease, 
until  he  shall  "abide  in  the  highest  excellence." 
This  goal,  albeit  unattainable  in  the  absolute, 
he  must  ever  have  before  his  vision,  determined 
above  all  things  to  attain  it,  relatively,  every 
moment  of  his  life — that  is,  to  "abide  in  the 
highest  excellence"  of  which  he  is  at  the  moment 
capable.  So  he  says  in  "The  Great  Learning": 
"What  one  should  abide  in  being  known,  what 
should  be  aimed  at  is  determined;  upon  this  de- 
cision, unperturbed  resolve  is  attained;  to  this 
succeeds  tranquil  poise;  this  affords  opportunity 
for  deliberate  care;  through  such  deliberation  the 
goal  is  achieved."     (Text,  v.  2.) 

This  speaks  throughout  of  self -development,  of 
that  renunciation  of  worldly  lusts  which  inspired 
the  cry :  "  For  what  shall  it  profit  a  man  if  he  shall 
gain  the  whole  world  and  lose  his  own  soul?"; 
but  this  is  not  left  doubtful — for  again  in  "The 
Great  Learning"  he  says:  "From  the  highest  to  « 
the  lowest,  self -development  must  be  deemed  the 
root  of  all,  by  every  man.  When  the  root  is 
neglected,  it  cannot  be  that  what  springs  from  it 
will  be  well-ordered."     (Text,  v.  6,  7.) 

Confucius  taught  that  to  pursue  the  art  of  life 
was  possible  for  every  man,  all  being  of  like  pas-   • 
sions  and  in  more  things  like  than  different.      He 


i 


8  The  Superior  Man 

says :  "  By  nature  men  are  nearly  alike ;  by  practice, 
they  get  to  be  wide  apart."  (Analects,  bk.  xvii., 
c.  ii.) 

Mencius  put  forward  this  idea  continually, 
never  more  succinctly  and  aptly  than  in  this: 
"All  things  are  already  complete  in  us."  (Bk. 
vii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iv.,  I.) 

Mencius  also  announced  that  the  advance  of 
every  man  is  independent  of  the  power  of  others, 
as  follows:  "To  advance  a  man  or  to  stop  his 
advance  is  beyond  the  power  of  other  men." 
(Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xvi.,  3.) 

It  has  already  in  these  pages  been  quoted  from 
the  "Analects"  that  "the  superior  man  learns  in 
order  to  attain  to  the  utmost  of  his  principles." 

In  the  same  book  is  reported  this  colloquy: 
"Tsze-loo  asked  'What  constitutes  the  superior 
man?'  The  Master  said,  'The  cultivation  of  him- 
self with  reverential  care'"  (Analects,  bk.  xiv., 
c.xlv.);andinthe  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  "When 
one  cultivates  to  the  utmost  the  capabilities  of 
his  nature  and  exercises  them  on  the  principle  of 
reciprocity,  he  is  not  far  from  the  path."  (C.  xiii., 

3-). 

In  "The  Great  Learning,"  Confucius  revealed 
the  process,  step  by  step,  by  which  self-develop- 
ment is  attained  and  by  which  it  flows  over  into 
the  common  life  to  serve  the  state  and  to  bless 
mankind. 

"The  ancients,"  he  said,  "when  they  wished  to 
exemplify  illustrious  virtue  throughout  the  empire, 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man    9 

first  ordered  well  their  states.  Desiring  to  order 
well  their  states,  they  first  regulated  their  fami- 
lies. Wishing  to  regulate  their  families,  they 
first  cultivated  themselves.  Wishing  to  cultivate 
themselves,  they  first  rectified  their  purposes. 
Wishing  to  rectify  their  purposes,  they  first 
sought  to  think  sincerely.  Wishing  to  think 
sincerely,  they  first  extended  their  knowledge  as 
widely  as  possible.  This  they  did  by  investigation 
of  things. 

"By  investigation  of  things,  their  knowledge 
became  extensive;  their  knowledge  being  exten- 
sive, their  thoughts  became  sincere;  their  thoughts 
being  sincere,  their  purposes  were  rectified;  their 
purposes  being  rectified,  they  cultivated  them- 
selves; they  being  cultivated,  their  families  were 
regulated ;  their  families  being  regulated,  their  states 
were  rightly  governed;  their  states  being  rightly 
governed,  the  empire  was  thereby  tranquil  and 
prosperous."     (Text,  4,  5.) 

Lest  there  be  misunderstanding,  it  should  be 
said  that  mere  wealth  is  not  to  be  considered  the 
prosperity  of  which  he  speaks,  but  rather  plenty 
and  right-living.  For  there  is  the  saying:  "In  a 
state,  gain  is  not  to  be  considered  prosperity,  but 
prosperity  is  found  in  righteousness."  (Great 
Learning,  x.,  23.)  The  distribution  of  wealth  into 
mere  livelihoods  among  the  people  is  urged  by 
Confucius  as  an  essential  to  good  government, 
for  it  is  said  in  "The  Great  Learning":  "The 
concentration  of  wealth  is   the  way  to  disperse 


io  The  Superior  Man 

the  people,  distributing  it  among  them  is  the  way 
to  collect  the  people."     (X.,  9.) 

The  order  of  development,  therefore,  Confucius 
set  forth  as  follows: 
♦  •    Investigation  of  phenomena. 

Learning. 

Sincerity. 

Rectitude  of  purpose. 

Self -de  velopment . 

Family  discipline. 

Local  self-government. 
,.  Universal  self-government. 
( >  The  rules  of  conduct,  mental,  spiritual,  in  one's 
inner  life,  in  the  family,  in  the  state,  and  in  so- 
ciety at  large,  which  will  lead  to  this  self-develop- 
ment and  beyond  it,  Confucius  conceived  to  be 
of  universal  application,  for  it  is  said  in  the 
11  Doctrine  of  the  Mean "  (c.  xxviii.,  v.  3):  "Now 
throughout  the  empire  carriages  all  have  wheels 
with  the  same  tread,  all  writing  is  with  the  same 
characters,  and  for  conduct  there  are  the  same 
rules." 

How  this  may  be,  is  set  forth  in  the  same  book 
(c.  xii.,  v.  1,  2):  "The  path  which  the  superior 
man  follows  extends  far  and  wide,  and  yet  is  secret. 
Ordinary  men  and  women,  however  ignorant, 
may  meddle  with  the  knowledge  of  it;  yet,  in  its 
utmost  reaches,  there  is  that  which  even  the  sage 
does  not  discern.  Ordinary  men  and  women,  how- 
ever below  the  average  standard  of  ability,  can 
carry  it  into  practice;  yet,  in  its  utmost  reaches, 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  n 

there  is  that  which  even  the  sage  is  not  able  to 
carry  into  practice." 

It  is,  indeed,  a  true  art  of  living  which  is  thus 
presented,  a  scheme  of  adaptation  of  means  to 
ends,  of  causes  to  produce  their  appropriate  con- 
sequences, with  clear  and  noble  purposes  in  view, 
both  as  regards  one's  own  development  and  man's, 
both  as  regards  one's  own  weal  and  the  common 
weal. 

For  the  completion  of  its  work,  it  requires,  also, 
the  whole  of  life,  every  deflection  from  virtue 
marring  by  so  much  the  perfection  of  the  whole. 
Its  saintliness  lies  not  in  purity  alone,  but  in  the 
rounded  fulness  of  the  well-planned  and  well- 
spent  life,  the  more  a  thing  of  beauty  if  extended 
to  extreme  old  age.  Confucius  thus  modestly 
hints  how  slowly  it  develops  at  best,  when  he 
says:  "At  fifteen  I  had  my  mind  bent  on  learning. 
At  thirty  I  stood  firm.  At  forty  I  was  free  from 
doubt.  At  fifty  I  knew  the  decrees  of  Heaven. 
At  sixty  my  ear  was  an  obedient  organ  for  the 
reception  of  truth.  At  seventy  I  could  follow 
what  my  heart  desired  without  transgressing 
what  was  right."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  iv.) 

That  it  is  not  finished  until  death  rings  down 
the  curtain  upon  the  last  act,  is  shown  in  the 
"Analects"  by  this  aphorism  attributed  to  his 
disciple,  Tsang:  "The  scholar  may  not  be  without 
breadth  of  mind  and  vigorous  endurance.  His 
burden  is  heavy  and  his  course  is  long.  Perfect 
virtue  is  the  burden  which  he  considers  it  his  to 


12  The  Superior  Man 

sustain;  is  it  not  heavy?  Only  with  death  does 
his  course  stop;  is  it  not  long?"  (Analects,  bk. 
viii.,  c.  vii.) 

Mental  Morality.  "When  you  know  a  thing, 
to  hold  that  you  know  it,  and  when  you  do  not 
know  a  thing,  to  acknowledge  that  you  do  not 
know  it — this  is  knowledge."  (Analects,  bk.  ii., 
c.  xvii.) 

In  these  words  Confucius  set  forth  more  lucidly 
than  any  other  thinker,  ancient  or  modern,  the 
essential  of  all  morality,  mental  honesty,  integrity 
of  the  mind — the  only  attitude  which  does  not 
close  the  door  to  truth. 

The  same  thing  is  put  forward  in  a  different 

way  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  thus:  "Do  not  positively 

j-  affirm  when  you  have  doubts ;  and  when  you  have 

not,  do  not  put  forth  what  you  say,  as  merely 

your  view."     (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii.,  5.) 

The  Chinese  sage  had  no  delusions  about  the 
real  nature  of  the  art  of  living,  the  rules  of  human 
conduct;  he  knew  and  understood  that  ethics  are 
of  the  mind,  that  sticks  and  stones  are  neither 
moral  nor  immoral  but  merely  unmoral,  and  that 
the  possibilities  of  good  and  evil  choices  come 
only  when  the  intelligence  dawns  which  alone 
can  choose  between  them. 

Mencius  considerably  extended  this  view,  start- 
ing from  the  position :  "  If  men  do  what  is  not  good, 
the  blame  cannot  be  imputed  to  their  natural 
powers."     (Bk.  xi.,  pt.  L,  c.  vi.,  v.  6.) 

Not  that  he  did  not  recognize  the  perils  of  un- 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  13 

restrained  animal  passions,  ministered  to,  instead 
of  guided  and  controlled  by,  a  human  mind  which 
accordingly  becomes  their  slave  instead  of  master; 
for  he  says:  "That  whereby  man  differs  from  the 
lower  animals  is  little.  Most  people  throw  it 
away,  the  superior  man  preserves  it."  (Bk.  iv., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  xix.,  v.  1.) 

And  again  he  refers  to  this  inexcusable  reversal 
of  the  natural  order,  thus:  "When  a  man's  finger 
is  deformed,  he  knows  enough  to  be  dissatisfied; 
but  if  his  mind  be  deformed,  he  does  not  know 
that  he  should  be  dissatisfied.  This  is  called: 
'Ignorance  of  the  relative  importance  of  things.'  " 
(Bk.  vi.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xii.,  v.  2.) 

The  "Li  Ki"  says  of  this,  more  explicitly: 
"It  belongs  to  the  nature  of  man,  as  from  Heaven, 
to  be  still  at  his  birth.  His  activity  shows  itself 
as  he  is  acted  on  by  external  things,  and  develops 
the  desires  incident  to  his  nature.  Things  come 
to  him  more  and  more,  and  his  knowledge  is  in- 
creased. Then  arise  the  manifestations  of  liking 
and  disliking.  When  these  are  not  regulated  by 
anything  within,  and  growing  knowledge  leads 
more  astray  without,  he  cannot  come  back  to  him- 
self, and  his  Heavenly  principle  is  extinguished. 

"Now  there  is  no  end  of  the  things  by  which 
man  is  affected ;  and  when  his  likings  and  dislikings 
are  not  subject  to  regulation  (from  within),  he 
is  changed  into  the  nature  of  things  as  they  come 
before  him;  that  is,  he  stifles  the  voice  of  Heavenly 
principle  within,  and  gives  the  utmost  indulgence 


14  The  Superior  Man 

to  the  desires  by  which  men  may  be  possessed. 
On  this  we  have  the  rebellious  and  deceitful  heart, 
with  licentious  and  violent  disorder."  (Bk.  xvii., 
sect,  i.,  v.  II,  12.) 

Therefore,  with  acumen  and  discernment  never 
excelled,  Confucius  divined  that  the  mind  must 
first  be  honest  with  itself.  This  indicates  the 
essential  immorality  of  the  mind  which  clings  to 
that  which  it  does  not  know,  with  fervency  and 
loyalty  more  devoted  than  that  with  which  it 
holds  to  that  which  it  does  know.  That  one  should 
not  be  swayed  by  what  he  prefers  to  believe,  is 
again  asserted  in  these  words  of  the  "Shu-King," 
ascribed  to  I  Yin  (pt.  iv.,  bk.  v.,  sect,  iii.,  v.  2.): 

"When  you  hear  words  that  are  distasteful  to 
your  mind,  you  must  inquire  whether  they  be  not 
right ;  when  you  hear  words  that  accord  with  your 
own  views,  you  must  inquire  whether  they  be  not 
contrary  to  right." 

It  is  consonant  with  the  spirit  and  teaching  of 
Confucius  that  the  philosopher  Ch'ing  should  have 
said  of  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean":  "This  work 
contains  the  law  of  the  mind  which  was  handed 
down  from  one  to  another";  and  that  Confucius 
himself  has  said :  "  In  the  Book  of  Poetry  are  three 
hundred  pieces,  but  the  design  of  them  all  may 
be  embraced  in  one  sentence :  '  Have  no  depraved 
thoughts.'"     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  ii.) 

It  was  thus  that  Confucius  conceived  the  art  of 
living,  as  a  thing  thought  out,  a  response  pur- 
posive, instead  of  automatic,  to  every  impulse  from 


* 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  15 

without.  He  says  of  himself,  meaning  thereby 
to  instruct  his  disciples  and  inspire  them  to  emu- 
lation: "I  have  no  course  for  which  I  am  pre- 
determined and  no  course  against  which  I  am 
predetermined."      (Analects,    bk.    xviii.,    c.    viii., 

v.  5-) 

And,  as  already  quoted,  these  are  among  his 
most  striking  attributes  of  the  superior  man: 
"The  superior  man  is  catholic  and  not  partisan; 
the  ordinary  man  is  partisan  and  not  catholic." 
(Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xiv.)  "The  superior  man 
in  the  world  does  not  set  his  mind  either  for  any- 
thing or  against  anything;  what  is  right,  he  will 
follow."  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  x.)  "The  superior 
man  is  anxious  lest  he  should  not  get  truth;  he  is 
not  anxious  lest  poverty  should  come  upon  him." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxi.) 

In  yet  more  glowing  and  enthusiastic  terms  he 
sang  the  praises  of  the  open  mind,  its  need,  its 
utility,  its  essential  beauty  and  sure  promise, 
saying:  "They  who  know  the  truth  are  not  equal 
to  them  that  love  it,  and  they  who  love  it  are  not 
equal  to  them  that  find  pleasure  in  it."  (Analects, 
bk.  vi.,  c.  xviii.) 

Socrates  said  something  akin  to  this  when  he 
rebuked  the  "sophists,"  i.  e.,  the  "wise,"  and 
modestly  called  himself  "philosophos,"  i.  e.,  only 
a  lover  of  wisdom  and  one  who  devoutly  wishes 
to  learn. 

Confucius  sets  before  his  disciples  the  appre- 
hension  and    ascertainment    of   the    bald    truth 


> 


16  The  Superior  Man 

concerning  the  phenomena  of  nature,  as  the  thing 
first  to  be  desired;  for  he  says:  "The  object  of  the 
superior  man  is  truth."    (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxi.) 

Of  himself,  his  disciples  present  this  portrayal: 
''There  were  four  things  from  which  the  Master 
was  entirely  free:  He  had  no  foregone  conclu- 
sions, no  arbitrary  predeterminations,  no  obsti- 
nacy, and  no  egoism."     (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  iv.) 

The  Investigation  of  Phenomena.  "Wishing 
to  think  sincerely,  they  first  extended  their  know- 
ledge. This  they  did  by  investigation  of  things. 
By  investigation  of  things,  their  knowledge  be- 
came extensive.  Their  knowledge  being  extensive, 
their  thoughts  became  sincere." 

These  words  from  "The  Great  Learning" 
(Text,  v.  4,  5)  are  meant  to  show  how  the  mind, 
holding  itself  in  resolution,  its  conclusions  ready 
to  take  whatever  form  the  compelling  logic  of  the 
ascertained  facts  may  require,  must,  as  an  essen- 
tial prerequisite  of  a  normal  and  well-rounded 
life,  investigate  the  phenomena  which  are  around 
it.  These  are  its  world,  with  which  it  must  cope, 
and  which,  in  order  that  it  may  cope  therewith, 
it  must  also  understand.  Confucius  says:  "To 
this  attainment" — i.  e.,  perfect  sincerity — "there 
are  requisite  extensive  study  of  what  is  good, 
accurate  inquiry  into  it,  careful  consideration  of 
it,  clear  distinguishing  about  it,  and  earnest 
practical  application  of  it."  (Doctrine  of  the 
Mean,  c.  xx.,  v.  19.) 

That  there  must  be  this  ardent  spirit  of  inquiry, 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  17 

this  insatiable  thirst  after  knowledge,  or  the  man 
is  lost,  is  indicated  by  Confucius  in  many  sayings. 
One  of  the  aptest  of  these  is:  "When  a  man  says 
not,  'What  shall  I  think  of  this?  What  shall  I 
think  of  this? ',  I  can  indeed  do  nothing  with  him." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xv.) 

On  another  occasion  he  announced:  "I  do  not 
reveal  the  truth  to  one  who  is  not  eager  to  get 
knowledge,  nor  assist  any  one  who  is  not  himself 
anxious  to  explain."     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.   viii.) 

The  apprehension  that  effect  follows  cause, 
was  rightly  regarded  by  him  the  first  office  of  the 
human  mind  and  the  primary  moral  act  of  an 
intelligent  being.  This  was  made  the  foundation 
of  "The  Great  Learning"  (Text,  v.  3):  "Things 
have  their  root  and  their  fruition.  Affairs  have 
their  end  and  their  beginning.  To  know  what 
goes  first  and  what  comes  after,  is  near  to  what 
is  taught  in  the  Great  Learning." 

As  the  followers  of  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle 
soon  lost  the  real  point  of  view  of  the  great  lover 
of  wisdom,  by  reason  of  their  devotion  to  what  they 
understood  to  be  the  positive  teaching  of  himself 
and  his  disciples,  and  built  up  a  system  of  pre- 
scriptive and  authoritative  learning  which  in  fact 
stifled  original  investigation  of  phenomena,  while 
encouraging  mere  speculation  and  dialectics,  so 
in  like  manner  the  investigation  of  phenomena, 
enjoined  by  Confucius,  soon  degenerated  into 
scholasticism,  and  the  mere  conning  and  memoriz- 
ing of  texts.     The  neglect  of  the  true  significance 


18  The  Superior  Man 

of  his  injunction  was  so  complete  that,  though 
apparently  no  other  sentences  are  missing,  the 
chapter  of  "The  Great  Learning"  in  which  was 
given  the  early  author's  version  of  what  is  meant 
by  "investigation  of  things"  is  lost.  Only  these 
words  are  still  extant:  "This  is  called  knowing  the 
root.  This  is  called  the  perfecting  of  knowledge." 
Views,  ascribed  to  the  commentator  Ch'ing, 
are  usually  supplied  to  fill  this  hiatus.  They  are 
here  quoted  to  show  how  the  true  function  of  in- 
vestigation, which  is  not  the  duty  merely  of  the 
young  and  untutored  mind  but  yet  more  the  duty 
of  the  trained  and  experienced,  was  distorted 
into  something  altogether  contrary,  by  passing 
through  the  intellect  of  the  adoring  scholiast: 
"The  meaning  of  the  expression,  'The  perfecting 
of  knowledge  depends  upon  the  investigation  of 
things '  is  this :  If  we  wish  to  carry  our  knowledge 
to  the  utmost,  we  must  investigate  the  principles 
of  all  things  we  come  into  contact  with;  for  the 
intelligent  mind  of  man  is  certainly  formed  to 
know  and  there  is  not  a  single  thing  of  which  its 
principles  are  not  a  part.  But  so  long  as  all 
principles  are  not  investigated,  man's  knowledge 
is  incomplete.  On  this  account,  the  'Learning 
for  Adults, '  in  its  opening  chapters,  instructs  the 
learner  in  regard  to  all  things  in  the  world,  to 
proceed  from  what  knowledge  he  has  of  their 
principles  and  pursue  his  investigations  of  them 
until  he  reaches  the  extreme  point.  After  exert- 
ing himself  in  this  way  for  a  long  time,  he  will 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  19 

suddenly  find  himself  possessed  of  a  wide  and  far- 
reaching  penetration.  Then  the  qualities  of  all 
things,  whether  external  or  internal,  subtle  or 
coarse,  will  be  apprehended  and  the  mind,  in  its 
whole  substance  and  its  relations  to  things,  will 
be  perfectly  intelligent.  This  is  called  the  in- 
vestigation of  things,  this  is  called  the  perfection 
of  knowledge." 

But,  while  it  may  have  been,  and  indeed  was, 
called  "the  investigation  of  things,"  by  Ch'ing 
and  by  many  of  the  scholiasts  since  his  day,  it  is 
obviously  far  from  that  enduring  open-mindedness 
and  spirit  of  impartial  inquiry  which  Confucius 
held  to  be  the  first  essential  to  the  art  of  living. 
The  words  of  Confucius,  therefore,  have  clearer 
and  higher  significance  in  this  scientific  age  than 
in  all  the  centuries  during  which  Asiatic  students 
have  memorized  them  in  the  schools. 

That  Confucius  meant  no  such  blind  following 
of  authority  is  clear  from  this  saying:  "Hwuy 
gives  me  no  assistance.  There  is  nothing  that 
I  say,  in  which  he  does  not  delight."  (Analects, 
bk.  xi.,  c.  iii.) 

Investigation  and  the  spirit  of  free  investiga- 
tion, in  order  that  knowledge  may  ever  be  sub- 
jected to  repeated  tests,  are  "the  root,"  according 
to  the  reasoning  of  Confucius,  from  which  the 
conduct  of  life  must  proceed.  Therefore  and 
referring  thereto,  the  philosopher  Yew  is  quoted 
as  saying:  "The  superior  man  bends  his  attention 
to  what  is  radical.     That  being  established,  all 


20  The  Superior  Man 

practical  courses  naturally  grow  up."  (Analects, 
bk.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  2.) 

This  is  set  forth  at  length  in  yet  more  enthu- 
siastic language:  "When  we  minutely  investigate 
the  nature  and  reasons  of  things  till  we  have  en- 
tered into  the  inscrutable  and  spiritual  in  them, 
we  attain  to  the  largest  practical  application  of 
them;  when  that  application  becomes  quickest 
and  readiest  and  personal  poise  is  secured,  our 
virtue  is  thereby  exalted.  Proceeding  beyond 
this,  we  reach  a  point  which  it  is  hardly  possible 
to  comprehend;  we  have  thoroughly  mastered 
the  inscrutable  and  spiritual  and  understand  the 
processes  of  transformation.  This  is  the  fulness 
of  virtue."  (Yi  King,  appendix  iii.,  sect,  ii.,  v. 
33,  34-) 

Learning.  "  Learning  without  thought  is  labour 
lost;  thought  without  learning  is  perilous."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  ii.,  c.  xv.) 

The  emphasis  is  put  upon  thinking  in  this 
statement  of  the  Duke  of  Kau,  quoted  in  the 
"Shu  King,"  by  Confucius  with  approval:  "The 
wise,  through  not  thinking,  become  foolish;  and 
the  foolish,  by  thinking,  become  wise."  (Pt.  v., 
bk.  xviii.,  2.) 

To  the  idea  expressed  in  these  astute  words  thus 
adopted  by  Confucius,  he  has  added  a  personal 
application  elsewhere,  emphasizing  the  emptiness 
of  mere  speculation:  "I  have  been  the  whole  day 
without  eating  and  the  whole  night  without 
sleeping,  occupied  with  thinking.     It  was  of  no 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  21 

avail.     The  better  plan  is  to  learn."     (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  xxx.) 

The  idleness  of  thought,  desire,  and  conduct 
proceeding  upon  insufficient  data  is  set  forth  by 
the  sage  in  great  detail,  in  the  following:  "There 
is  the  love  of  being  benevolent  without  the  love 
of  learning ; — the  beclouding  here  leads  to  a  foolish 
simplicity.  There  is  the  love  of  knowing  without 
the  love  of  learning; — the  beclouding  here  leads 
to  dissipation  of  mind.  There  is  the  love  of  being 
sincere  without  the  love  of  learning; — the  be- 
clouding here  leads  to  an  injurious  disregard  of 
consequences.  There  is  the  love  of  straightfor- 
wardness without  the  love  of  learning; — the  be- 
clouding here  leads  to  rudeness.  There  is  the 
love  of  boldness  without  the  love  of  learning; — 
the  beclouding  here  leads  to  insubordination. 
There  is  the  love  of  firmness  without  the  love 
of  learning; — the  beclouding  here  leads  to  ex- 
travagant conduct."     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  viii., 

v.  3-) 

Therefore  the  necessity  for  patient,  unremitting 
study,  not  merely  of  books  but  of  men,  animals, 
and  things,  of  the  phenomena  of  animate  and 
inanimate  nature,  is  urged  by  the  great  teacher 
again  and  again:  "Learn  as  if  you  might  not  at- 
tain your  object  and  were  always  fearing  lest  you 
miss  it."  (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xvii.)  "Is  it 
not  pleasant  to  learn  with  constant  perseverance 
and  application?"     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  1.) 

In  this  regard,  he  leaves  this  picture  of  himself, 


22  The  Superior  Man 

in  words  which  he  spoke  to  one  of  his  disciples: 
"The  Duke  of  She  asked  Tsze-loo  about  Confuc'us 
and  Tsze-loo  did  not  answer  him.  The  Master 
said,  'Why  did  you  not  say  to  him:  He  is  s'mply 
a  man  who  in  his  eager  pursuit  of  knowledge  for- 
gets his  food,  who  in  the  joy  of  attaining  it  forgets 
his  sorrows,  and  who  does  not  perceive  that  old 
age  is  coming  on?'  '       (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xviii.) 

And  this  is  also  declared  to  be  an  essential 
characteristic  of  the  superior  man:  "The  superior 
man  learns  and  accumulates  the  results  of  his 
learning;  puts  questions  and  discriminates  among 
those  results;  dwells  magnanimously  and  unam- 
bitiously  in  what  he  has  attained  to;  and  carries 
it  into  practice  with  benevolence."  (Yi  King, 
appendix  iv.,  c.  vi.,  v.  31.) 

That  one  must  be  modest  as  to  his  ability  and 
acquirements,  in  order  to  learn,  was  as  obvious 
to  the  mind  of  Confucius,  as  to  that  of  Socrates. 
These  words  of  Yueh  in  the  "Shu  King"  are 
illustrative  of  this:  "In  learning  there  should  be 
a  humble  mind  and  the  maintenance  of  constant 
earnestness."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  viii.,  sec.  iii.,  1.) 

And  these  are  the  words  of  Tsang,  referring  to 
his  friend,  Yen  Yuan:  "Gifted  with  ability  and 
yet  putting  questions  to  those  who  were  not  so; 
possessed  of  much  and  yet  putting  questions  to 
those  possessed  of  little ;  having,  as  though  he  had 
not;  full,  and  yet  counting  himself  as  empty; 
offended  against,  and  yet  entering  into  no  alter- 
cation,"    (Analects,  bk,  viii.,  c.  v.) 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  23 

Though  the  mentor  of  princes,  Confucius  did 
not  himself  depart  from  such  modesty  in  giving 
instruction,  even  as  he  adjured  his  disciples  to 
observe  it  always  in  receiving  t;  for  he  gives  this 
testimony  concerning  his  course:  "From  the  man 
bringing  his  bundle  of  dried  flesh  upwards,  I  have 
never  refused  instruction  to  any  one."  (Analects, 
bk.  vii.,  c.  vii.) 

There  comes  before  the  mind  of  the  modern 
student  of  Confucius,  therefore,  the  same  picture 
of  humble  companionship  with  the  lowly  as  with 
the  great,  which  the  sojourn  of  Jesus,  of  Socrates, 
or  of  Epictetus  among  men  also  conjures  forth. 
That  such  would  be  the  universal  consequence, 
were  there  universal  instruction,  i.  e.,  that  learn- 
ing is  essentially  democratic  and  not  a  respecter 
of  rank,  riches,  or  even  of  persons,  he  affirms  in 
this  sentence:  "There  being  instruction,  there 
will  be  no  distinction  of  classes"  (Analects,  bk.  xv., 
c.  xxxviii.),  which  declaration,  accepted  and  fol- 
lowed, has  preserved  China  from  that  stifling 
death  into  which  the  caste  system  of  India  has 
forced  its  unhappy  people. 

Yet  by  no  means  unto  all,  the  scoffer  as  well  as 
the  earnest  student,  the  dull  as  well  as  the  discern- 
ing, did  Confucius  consider  that  all  knowledge 
should  be  imparted;  instead  he  said:  "To  those 
whose  talents  are  above  mediocrity,  the  highest 
subjects  may  be  announced.  To  those  who  are 
below  mediocrity,  the  highest  subjects  may  not 
be  announced."     (Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xix.) 


X 


24  The  Superior  Man 

The  course  which  he  who  would  learn  must 
follow  is  given  by  Tsze-hea  in  these  words:  "He 
who  from  day  to  day  recognizes  what  he  has  not 
yet  attained  to,  and  from  month  to  month  remem- 
bers what  he  has  attained  to,  may  be  said  to  love 
to  learn."     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  v.) 

And  that  thoroughness  and  completion  of  all 
tasks  are  absolutely  requisite,  in  these :  ' '  The  pro- 
secution of  learning  may  be  compared  with  what 
may  happen  in  raising  a  mound.  If  there  lack 
but  one  basket  of  earth  to  complete  the  work, 
and  I  there  cease,  the  cessation  is  my  own  act." 
(Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xviii.) 

That  gravity  and  earnestness  are  requisite,  he 
thus  affirms :  "  If  the  scholar  be  not  grave,  he  will 
not  call  forth  any  veneration,  and  his  learning 
will  not  be  sold."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  viii.,  v.  I.) 

The  reward  of  learning  he  declares  to  be:  "It 
is  not  easy  to  find  a  man  who  has  learned  for  three 
years,  without  coming  to  be  virtuous. ' '  (Analects, 
bk.  viii.,  c.  xii.) 

If  observation  in  these  twentieth-century  days 
does  not  confirm  this,  is  it  not  because  of  this,  that 
investigation  and  study  are  but  too  often  under- 
taken only  in  support  of  propositions  to  which  the 
students  are  already  committed,  or,  to  put  it 
otherwise,  that  such  are  rather  the  labours  of  the 
special  advocate  to  establish  his  cause  than  of  the 
impartial  seeker  after  truth  ?  And,  if  so,  how  could 
the  result  be  as  Confucius  said?  Moreover,  in 
which  of  our  schools  are  the  rules  of  mental  ethics, 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  25 

of  correct-  study  and  thought,  imparted?  Is  not 
the  fault  rather  that  education  is  not  what  it 
should  be,  than  that  there  is  education? 

One  of  the  disciples  of  Confucius  testified  con- 
cerning his  instruction,  "He  enlarged  my  mind 
with  learning  and  taught  me  the  restraints  of 
propriety"  (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  x.,  v.  2),  by  which 
is  meant  the  rules  of  conduct,  mental  and  within 
one's  self,  as  well  as  mental  though  outwardly 
expressed.  Another  disciple  said:  "There  are 
learning  extensively  and  having  a  firm  and  sincere 
aim,  inquiring  with  earnestness,  and  reflecting 
with  self -application ;  virtue  is  in  such  a  course." 
(Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  vi.) 

Confucius  himself  remarked:   "By  extensively 
studying  all  learning  and  keeping  himself  under 
the  restraint  of  the  rules  of  propriety,  one  may  \y 
thus  likewise  not  err  from  what  is  right."     (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xii.,  c.  xv.) 

And  in  the  "Li  Ki"  this  is  found:  "To  acquire 
extensive  information  and  remember  retentively 
while  yet  modest;  to  do  earnestly  what  is  good 
and  not  become  weary  in  so  doing — these  are 
characteristics  of  him  whom  we  call  the  superior 
man."     (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  iv.,  v.  27.) 

By  emphasizing  that  learning  should  be  exten- 
sive, he  did  not  mean  to  advise  serious  study  of 
every  idle  speculation  which  the  invention  and 
ingenuity  of  human  intellects  can  produce.  In- 
stead, the  course  which  he  marked  out  is  that  of 
close  and  careful  observation  of  facts  and  pains- 


26  The  Superior  Man 

taking,  cautious  reasoning  about  them.  Of  the 
perils  of  the  other,  he  says:  "The  study  of  strange 
doctrines  is  injurious  indeed."  (Analects,  bk.  ii., 
c.  xvi.) 

Notwithstanding  this,  he  did  not  subordinate, 
and  much  less  did  he  eliminate  the  need  for,  at- 
tention to  the  broad  conception  of  the  universe, 
while  keeping  one's  eye  upon  the  particle  of  dead 
matter  or  the  infinitesimal  forms  of  life.  That 
the  laws  which  operate  in  the  phenomena  of 
nature  are  the  very  laws  of  God,  was  ever  pre- 
sent in  his  mind,  and  that  narrow  views  of  these 
phenomena,  as  if  they  were  unrelated  and  inde- 
pendent, are  not  and  cannot  be  true  knowledge. 
Therefore  is  it,  as  he  said,  that  "in  order  to  know 
men,"  one  "may  not  dispense  with  a  know- 
ledge of  Heaven."  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c. 
xx.,  v.  7.) 

That  everything  cognizable  is  the  field  of  learning 
is  suggested  in  the  words:  "Accordingly,  the  sage, 
looking  up,  contemplates  the  brilliant  phenomena 
of  the  heavens  and,  looking  down,  examines 
the  definite  arrangements  of  the  earth;  thus  he 
knows  the  causes  of  darkness  and  of  light.  He 
traces  things  to  their  beginning  and  follows  them 
to  their  end;  thus  he  knows  what  can  be  said 
about  death  and  life."  (Yi  King,  appendix  iii., 
c.  iv.,  v.  21.) 

The  great  utility  to  him  who  would  round  out 
his  own  life  by  knowledge  of  the  achievements 
of  ancient  worthies  was  enforced  as  follows:  "The 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  27 

scholar  lives  and  associates  with  men  of  his  own 
time;  but  the  men  of  antiquity  are  the  subjects  of 
his  study."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxxviii.,  v.  11.) 

The  great,  the  all-important  place  of  learning, 
so  defined  as  a  moving  force  in  the  scheme  of  life, 
and,  within  the  measure  of  his  capacity,  its  claim 
upon  every  human  being,  he  thus  affirmed: 
"Knowledge,  magnanimity,  and  energy,  these 
three  are  the  virtues  which  are  universally  bind- 
ing."    (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xx.,  v.  8.) 

The  union  of  a  sublime  trust  and  an  earnest 
struggle  to  learn  is  thus  praised  by  the  sage  him- 
self: "With  sincere  trust  he  unites  the  love  of 
learning;  holding  firm  unto  death,  he  is  perfecting 
the  excellence  of  his  course."  (Analects,  bk.  viii., 
c.  xiii.,  v.  1.) 

Genius  and  Inspiration.  It  is  characteristic 
of  Confucius  that,  where  he  did  not  know,  he  did 
not  affirm.  His  saying,  "When  you  do  not  know 
a  thing,  to  acknowledge  that  you  do  not  know  it, 
is  knowledge"  (Analects,  bk.  h\,  c.  xvii.),  is 
far  from  being:  "  If  you  do  not  know  a  thing,  affirm 
that  it  is  not  true." 

Therefore,  especially  since,  as  all  candid  souls 
must  ever  have  been,  he  was  impressed  with  the 
marvellous  insight  which  the  minds  of  some  of 
earth's  children  had  shown,  he  was  not  a  doctrin- 
aire concerning  the  possibility  of  quicker,  surer, 
and  deeper  discernment  of  facts  and  truths  than 
that  of  which  ordinary  human  beings  are  capable. 
Accordingly  he  says  of  this:  "Those  who  arc  born 


28  The  Superior  Man 

in  the  possession  of  knowledge,  are  the  highest 
class  of  men.  Those  who  learn  and  so  acquire 
knowledge,  are  next.  The  dull  and  stupid  who 
yet  achieve  knowledge,  are  a  class  next  to  these. 
Those  who  are  dull  and  stupid  and  yet  do  not 
learn,  are  the  lowest  of  the  people."  (Analects, 
bk.  xvi.,  c.  ix.) 

Though  he  is  now  reverenced  by  millions  in  the 
Asiatic  world  as  the  greatest  mind  that  has  been 
incarnate  among  them,  Confucius  makes  no  claim 
to  such  inspiration  and  internal  perception  of 
knowledge  without  external  observation,  for  him- 
self; instead,  he  says:  "I  am  not  one  who  was  born 
in  the  possession  of  knowledge;  I  am  one  who  is 
fond  of  antiquity  and  earnest  in  seeking  it  there." 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xix.) 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  others  were  not  able 
in  his  day  to  find  what  he  set  forth,  in  the  archives 
of  mankind  or  even  in  the  contemplation  of  nature, 
and  the  further  undeniable  fact  of  his  wonderful 
penetration  and  clarity,  it  may  be  questioned 
whether,  in  addition  to  his  tireless  industry, 
there  was  not  present  also  the  full  measure  of 
illumination  from  without  and,  let  us  reverently 
say,  from  above,  which  has  attended  others  of 
the  world's  great  moral  teachers  and  leaders  in 
all  time. 

That  it  was  not  all  pure  grind — nay,  more,  that 
it  should  never  be  all  pure  grind — but,  instead, 
the  organic  absorption  of  knowledge  into  himself 
and  as  inherent  parts  of  himself,  blending  into  a 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  29 

harmonious,  developed  whole,  these  words  indi- 
cate: "The  Master  asked,  'Tsze,  you  think,  I 
suppose,  that  I  am  one  who  learns  many  things 
and  keeps  them  in  his  memory?'  Tsze-kung 
replied,  'Yes,  but  perhaps  it  is  not  so?'  'No,' 
was  the  answer,  'I  seek  unity,  all  pervading.'  " 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  ii.) 

That  there  might  not  be  foolish  reliance  upon 
internal  light  as  a  means  of  escaping  the  onerous 
labour  of  learning,  he  spoke  this  parable:  "The 
mechanic  who  wishes  to  do  his  work  well  must 
first  sharpen  his  tools."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  ix.) 

Preparation  for  the  practice  of  the  art  of  living, 
he  taught,  is  necessary  unto  all  men,  saying:  "Let 
every  man  consider  virtue  as  what  devolves  upon 
himself;  he  may  not  yield  the  performance  of  it 
even  to  his  teacher."  (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxv.) 
And  also  that  perfection  is  a  plant  of  slow  growth, 
matured  only  by  steady  progress  in  development, 
in  this  saying  as  in  many  others:  "I  saw  his  con- 
stant advance.  I  never  saw  him  halt  in  his 
progress."     (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xx.) 

Sincerity.  "Their  knowledge  being  extensive, 
their  thoughts  became  sincere." 

The  foregoing  from  "The  Great  Learning" 
(Text,  v.  5)  is  challenged  more  frequently,  per- 
haps, than  any  other  of  its  propositions;  for  the 
mind  immediately  recurs  to  the  remembrance  of 
many  Machiavellian  characters  who  were  well- 
informed,  even  erudite,  and  yet  insincere.  And, 
although  Confucius  here  speaks  of  sincerity  within 


30  The  Superior  Man 

a  man's  self  and  toward  himself,  as  counter- 
distinguished  from  sincere  speech  and  action,  yet, 
notwithstanding  that  one  cannot  read  the  inmost 
thoughts  and  purposes  of  another,  few  there  are 
who  have  pondered  deeply  and  observed  widely 
and  closely,  that  do  not  know  that  sincerity  of 
thought  must  itself  be  cultivated  or  at  least  be 
preserved. 

Confucius  had  no  mind  to  say  otherwise  for  he 
puts  it  thus  in  "The  Great  Learning"  at  the  very 
outset:  "Wishing  to  think  sincerely,  they  first 
extended  their  knowledge  as  widely  as  possible. 
This  they  did  by  the  investigation  of  things"; 
and  he  himself  says,  elsewhere:  "Leaving  virtue 
without  proper  cultivation;  not  thoroughly  dis- 
cussing what  is  learned;  not  being  able  to  move 
toward  righteousness  of  which  knowledge  has  been 
gained;  and  not  being  able  to  change  what  is  not 
good:  these  are  the  things  which  occasion  me 
solicitude."     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  iii.) 

He  also  said,  referring  to  knowledge:  "A  man 
can  enlarge  his  principles;  the  principles  do  not 
[i.e.,  of  themselves]  enlarge  the  man.  * '  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  xxviii.)  The  same  is  also  implied,  as 
well  as  that  a  man  of  character,  while  ready  to 
serve,  will  not  permit  himself  to  be  used,  by  this 
saying  (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xii.) :  "The  superior 
man  is  not  an  utensil,"  i.  e.,  his  usefulness  is  not 
confined  to  one  thing. 

Therefore,  not  to  one  who  must  as  a  matter  of 
mere  consequence  comply,  but  to  one  who  may 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  31 

exercise  a  choice  whether  to  obey  or  not,  learned 
though  he  may  be,  he  directs  this  injunction: 
"Hold  faithfulness  and  sincerity  as  first  principles 
and  be  moving  continually  toward  what  is  right." 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  x.) 

Mencius  puts  it,  beautifully,  thus:   "There  is      k 
no  greater  delight  than  to  be  conscious  of  sincerity 
upon  self-examination."     (Bk.  vii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iv., 
v.  2.) 

In  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  Confucius  says: 
"Is  it  not  just  entire  sincerity  which  marks  the 
superior  man?"  (c.  xiii.,  v.  4) ;  and  in  "The  Great 
Learning":  "The  superior  man  must  make  his 
thoughts  sincere."     (C.  vi.,  4.) 

The  same  idea  Mencius  presents  in  this  pleasing 
trope:  "The  great  man  is  he  who  does  not  lose  ,, 
his  child's  heart."     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xii.) 

This  sincerity  of  thought,  as  of  action,  Confu- 
cius included  among  the  five  qualities  essential  to 
perfect  virtue,  saying :  "  To  be  able  to  practise  five 
things  everywhere  under  heaven  constitutes  perfect 
virtue:  Gravity,  magnanimity,  sincerity,  earnest- 
ness, and  kindness."  (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  vi.) 
That  it  should  not  be  found  in  every  man,  how- 
ever imperfect  and  however  unstable,  was  incom- 
prehensible to  him,  since  to  his  view  it  is  the  very 
breath  of  life  for  an  intelligent  being.  This  he 
declares  in  these  terms:  "Ardent  and  yet  not  up-  \  / 
right;  stupid  and  yet  not  attentive;  simple  and 
yet  not  sincere :  such  persons  I  do  not  understand." 
(Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xvi.) 


32  The  Superior  Man 

Yet  that  he  did  not  expect  those  who  were 
uninstructed  to  be  sincere,  is  plain  from  this 
expression  in  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean":  "If 
a  man  do  not  understand  what  is  good,  he  will 
not  attain  sincerity  in  himself."     (C.  xix.,  v.  17.) 

This  is  but  a  negative  statement  of  what  has 
already  been  quoted  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xx., 
v.  19):  "To  this  attainment" — i.  e.,  of  sincerity — 
"there  are  requisite  extensive  study  of  what  is 
good,  accurate  inquiry  concerning  it,  careful 
consideration  of  it,  clear  distinguishing  about  it, 
and  earnest  practical  application  of  it" — many 
things,  in  short,  besides  and  beyond  mere  know- 
ledge, essential  as  the  intelligent  perception  of 
things  as  they  are,  may  be.  As  much  is  also 
implied  in:  "He  who  attains  to  sincerity  chooses 
the  good  and  firmly  holds  it  fast."  (Doctrine  of 
the  Mean,  c.  xxi.,  v.  8.) 

That  the  attainment  of  sincerity  is  an  essential 
prerequisite  to  self-development,  this  book  strongly 
asserts.  "Sincerity,"  it  says,  "is  that  whereby 
self-development  is  effected  and  the  path  by 
which  a  man  must  direct  himself"  (Doctrine  of 
the  Mean,  c.  xxv.,  v.  1);  and  again:  "It  is  only 
he  who  is  possessed  of  the  completest  sincerity 
that  can  exist  under  Heaven,  who  can  give  full 
development  to  his  nature."  (Doctrine  of  the 
Mean,  c.  xxii.)  In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix 
iv.,  sect,  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  3),  it  is  said:  "He  is  sincere 
even  in  his  ordinary  words  and  earnest  in  his 
everyday  conduct.     Guarding  against  depravity, 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  33 

he  preserves  his  sincerity.  His  goodness  is  recog- 
nized in  the  world  but  he  does  not  boast  of 
it. 

This  beneficent  power  he  is  also  not  confined  to 
exerting  upon  himself  and  for  his  own  develop- 
ment only.  Instead,  it  is  of  broader  and  even 
universal  application;  for  Confucius  says:  "The 
possessor  of  sincerity  develops  not  himself  only; 
with  it,  he  also  develops  others."  (Doctrine  of 
the  Mean,  c.  xxv.,  v.  3.) 

By  means  of  sincerity,  it  is  taught  in  the  "  Doc- 
trine of  the  Mean,"  and  by  it  alone,  man  becomes, 
and  is  welcomed  as,  the  co-operator  with  Heaven, 
and  may  thus  beneficially  influence  and  even 
transform  others.  There  is  psychological  import 
in  the  words:  "It  is  only  he  who  is  possessed  of 
the  completest  sincerity  that  can  exist  under 
Heaven,  who  can  transform."  (Doctrine  of  the 
Mean,  c.  xxiii.) 

This  is  but  one  of  the  many  alluring  rewards 
that  the  sage  saw  to  attend  sincerity,  which  is, 
besides,  sufficiently  its  own  reward.  Insight  and 
foresight  are  others,  concerning  which  it  is  said 
in  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean":  "He  who  has 
sincerity  without  effort  hits  what  is  right  and 
discerns  without  laborious  thought;  he  is  a  sage 
who  naturally  and  readily  follows  the  path." 
(C.  xx.,  v.  18.)  "It  is  characteristic  of  the  com- 
pletest sincerity  to  be  able  to  foreknow."  (C.  xxiv.) 
"When  calamities  or  blessings  are  about  to  befall, 
the  good  or  the  evil  will  surely  be  foreknown  by 


34  The  Superior  Man 

him.  He,  therefore,  who  is  possessed  of  the  com- 
pletest  sincerity,  is  like  a  spirit."     (C.  xxiv.) 

Extreme  as  these  statements  may  appear,  who 
is  there  among  earnest  thinkers  and  students  that 
has  not  seen  or  experienced  something  very  like 
this?  It  is  obvious  that  the  mind  can  the  better 
fulfil  its  highest  offices,  if  steadily  applied  thereto 
and  never  to  the  grovelling  arts  of  deception 
or,  lower  yet,  of  self-deception.  If  gross  self- 
deception,  as  by  cowardice,  self-seeking,  prejudice, 
or  superstition,  renders  the  mind  incapable  of 
perceiving  the  simplest  truths  concerning  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  it  may  well  be  that  com- 
plete absence  of  the  wish  to  deceive  or  to  be  de- 
ceived bespeaks  clarity  of  vision  and  of  prevision 
— which  is,  perhaps,  only  clear  reasoning  from  the 
known  and  now,  to  the  unknown  and  to  be — 
though  it  otherwise  seem  impossible. 

"The  Great  Learning"  teaches  that  a  large 
measure  of  this  clear  vision  may  be  attained;  for, 
immediately  after  saying,  "The  superior  man  is 
watchful  over  himself,  when  alone,"  it  is  added: 
"There  is  no  evil  to  which  the  inferior  man  will 
not  proceed,  when  alone.  When  he  beholds  a 
superior  man,  he  tries  at  once  to  disguise  himself, 
concealing  his  evil  under  a  display  of  virtue.  The 
other  penetrates  him  as  if  he  saw  his  heart  and 
reins"  (Text,  vi.,  v.  I,  2). 

And  this  is  said  (Great  Learning,  vi.,  v.  2)  to 
warn  the  inferior  man  and  encourage  the  superior : 
"What  is  in  fact   within,   will  show  without"; 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  35 

and  the  Master  is  quoted  in  the  "Doctrine  of  the 
Mean"  (c.  xx.,  v.  18),  as  saying  with  an  enthusi- 
asm no  more  than  commensurate  with  the  sub- 
ject: "Sincerity  is  the  path  of  Heaven.  The 
attainment  of  sincerity  is  the  path  for  men,"  and 
the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  adds  yet  more  rap- 
turously in  its  praise :  "Sincerity  is  the  end  and  the 
beginning  of  all  things;  without  sincerity,  there 
is  nothing.  Therefore,  the  superior  man  regards 
the  attainment  of  sincerity  the  highest  excellence." 
(C.  xxv.,  v.  2.) 

This  eloquent  passage  in  the  "Shu  King" 
(pt.  v.,  bk.  ix.,  v.  2)  is  evidently  at  one  with  the 
view  of  Confucius:  "Awful  though  Heaven  be, 
it  yet  helps  the  sincere." 

Rectification  of  Purpose.  "Their  thoughts 
being  sincere,  their  purposes  were  rectified." 

In  "The  Great  Learning,"  from  which  this  is 
taken  (Text,  v.  5),  the  following  brief  explanation 
of  it  is  given:  "This  is  meant  by  'Self-development 
depends  upon  rectifying  one's  purposes':  If  a  man 
be  swayed  by  passion,  his  conduct  will  be  wrong; 
and  so  also  if  he  be  swayed  by  terror,  by  fond- 
ness, by  sorrow,  by  distress.  When  the  mind  is  not 
dominant,  we  look  but  see  not,  we  hear  but  com- 
prehend not,  we  eat  but  taste  not."    (C.  vii.,  v.  1,2.) 

The  same  thought  Confucius  expresses  at 
another  time  when  addressing  one  of  his  disciples : 
"  Ch'ang  is  under  the  influence  of  his  passions; 
how  can  he  be  pronounced  firm  and  unbending?" 
(Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  x.) 


36  The  Superior  Man 

Rarely  in  any  of  the  books  edited  by  Confucius, 
composed  of  his  sayings  or  purporting  to  set  forth 
his  views,  is  anything  advanced  as  the  very  word 
of  God.  Yet  upon  this  topic  the  following  is 
found  in  the  "Shi  King"  (Major  Odes,  decade  i., 
ode  7):  "God  said  to  King  Wan:  'Be  not  like 
them  who  reject  this  and  cling  to  that!  Be  not 
like  them  who  are  ruled  by  their  likes  and  desires ! '" 

And  in  the  "Li  Ki"  is  found  this  account  of  the 
methods  and  purposes  of  the  ancient  kings,  al- 
ready once  quoted:  "It  belongs  to  the  nature  of 
1/  man,  as  from  Heaven,  to  be  still  at  his  birth.  His 
activity  shows  itself  as  he  is  acted  on  by  external 
things,  and  develops  the  desires  incident  to  his 
nature.  Things  come  to  him  more  and  more,  and 
his  knowledge  is  increased.  Then  arise  the  mani- 
festations of  liking  and  disliking.  When  these 
are  not  regulated  by  anything  within,  and  growing 
knowledge  leads  more  astray  without,  he  cannot 
come  back  to  himself,  and  his  Heavenly  principle 
is  extinguished. 

"Now  there  is  no  end  of  the  things  by  which 
man  is  affected ;  and  when  his  likings  and  dislikings 
are  not  subject  to  regulation  (from  within),  he 
>^  is  changed  into  the  nature  of  things  as  they  come 
before  him ;  that  is,  he  stifles  the  voice  of  Heavenly 
principle  within,  and  gives  the  utmost  indulgence 
to  the  desires  by  which  men  may  be  possessed. 
On  this  we  have  the  rebellious  and  deceitful  heart, 
with  licentious  and  violent  disorder."  (Li  Ki, 
bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  v,  II,  12.) 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  37 

The  starting-point  for  such  rectification  is 
vividly  portrayed  by  the  sage  in  the  following 
passage,  also  from  the  "Li  Ki"  (bk.  vii.,  sect,  ii., 
v.  20):  "The  things  which  men  greatly  desire 
are  comprehended  in  meat,  drink,  and  sexual 
pleasure;  the  things  which  they  greatly  dislike 
are  comprehended  in  death,  exile,  poverty,  and 
suffering.  Likes  and  dislikes  are  the  great  ele- 
ments of  men's  minds." 

If  to  the  three  things  desired  by  all  men  were 
added  "air,"  the  four  primal  animal  requisites 
to  self-preservation  and  race-preservation  would 
have  been  named,  each  good  and  well  adapted 
for  its  own  purposes  and  not  one  of  them  subject 
to  any  abuses  by  the  unthinking  beast. 

That  the  mind  of  man,  in  possessing  which  he 
differs  from  his  brother  animals,  should  fail  to 
subordinate  each  of  these  and  at  the  same  time 
more  perfectly  and  accurately  to  adapt  it  to  its 
own  purposes,  constitutes  abandonment  by  him 
of  his  highest  heritage ;  and  such  abuses  of  normal 
appetites  as  are  involved  in  feasting,  drinking, 
abandoned  venery,  or  snuff-taking,  or  tobacco  or 
opium  smoking,  each  an  exercise  in  an  abnormal 
way  of  a  special  function  for  its  own  sake  and 
without  design  that  the  consequences  of  its  health- 
ful exercise  should  follow,  obviously  are  perver- 
sions of  the  mind  and  well  illustrate  that  saying 
of  the  sage:  "The  progress  of  the  superior  man  is 
upward;  the  progress  of  the  ordinary  man  is 
downward."     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxiv.)  __ 


38  The  Superior  Man 

The  destructive  results  of  setting  the  heart 
upon  blind  indulgence  in  these  refinements  of 
sensual  pleasure  were  sung  in  "The  Odes"  by  one 
of  the  ancient  bards : 

"He  who  loves  hunting  and  women 
Abandons  his  state  to  ruin." 

(Li  Ki,  bk.  ix.,  sect,  ii.,  v.  12.) 

And  this  bald  fact,  abundantly  shown  in  this 
age  by  the  vital  statistics  of  every  country,  was 
spoken  by  the  Duke  of  Kau  and  handed  down  in 
the  "Shu  King"  (pt.  v.,  bk.  xv.,  v.  2):  "They 
sought  for  nothing  but  excessive  pleasure  and  so 
not  one  of  them  had  long  life." 

The  greater  longevity  of  men  who  were  earnest 
students  and  vigorous,  forceful  thinkers,  not  given 
to  dissipation  of  their  energies  in  any  of  the  ways 
described,  had  already  been  remarked,  indeed, 
centuries  before  the  time  of  Confucius.  Yet  he 
had  more  respect  for  misguided  seekers  after 
pleasure,  at  bottom,  than  for  the  smug  lovers  of 
safe  comfort;  the  former  at  least  lived,  however 
mistaken  their  view  of  life's  true  aim,  the  strenu- 
ous existence,  making  sacrifices  to  obtain  that 
which  they  desired.  He  would  not  have  been 
ready  to  go  so  far,  perhaps,  as  Ibsen  who  says 
through  the  lips  of  Brand: 

"Let  be,  ye  are  the  serfs  of  pleasure; 
Be  such,  then,  with  no  let  nor  measure! 
Not  one  thing  merely  for  today 
And  quite  another  thing  tomorrow. 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  39 

The  Bacchants  were  ideal.     They 

Kept  up  a  constant  round  of  revel. 

The  sot  who  swings  'twixt  drink  and  sorrow 

Is  but  a  'pitiable  devil.' 

Silenus  was  a  One  figure, 

The  tippler  but  his  caricature." 

But  much  more  clearly  than  any  of  the  other 
great  ethical  teachers  of  ancient  times,  Confucius 
recognizes  the  true  opposite  of  lofty  purpose  when 
he  puts  the  contrast  thus:  "The  superior  man  ^ 
thinks  of  virtue;  the  ordinary  man  thinks  of  com- 
fort."    (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xi.) 

He  thus  sets  one  against  the  other  the  highest 
and  the  lowest  aims  of  which  man  is  capable;  for 
all  other  low  aims  involve  at  least  some  sacrifice, 
while  he  who  seeks  comfort  only,  thinks  that  he 
would  be  happier  as  a  mere  parasite.  Of  such, 
Confucius  says:  "Hard  is  the  case  of  him  who 
will  stuff  himself  with  food  the  whole  day,  without  X 
applying  his  mind  to  anything.  Are  there  not 
gamesters  and  chessplayers?  Even  to  be  one  of 
these  would  be  better  than  doing  nothing  at  all." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xxii.) 

In  this  age,  when  comfort  is  the  sole  god  of  the 
many,  who  also  deem  themselves  good  and  vir- 
tuous and  even  superior,  surely  these  truths  need 
to  be  held  before  all  men  without  surcease,  lest 
the  race  degenerate  and  perish — degenerate  be- 
cause of  low  aim  and  its  successful  attainment,  and 
perish  because  they  whose  god  is  comfort  tend 
to  cease  to  propagate.     Was  it  not  to  this  the 


40  The  Superior  Man 

sage  referred  when  he  said,  "Your  good,  careful 
people  of  the  villages  are  the  thieves  of  virtue" 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xiii.),  and,  as  quoted  by 
Mencius,  "I  hate  your  good,  careful  men  of  the 
villages,  lest  they  be  confounded  with  the  vir- 
tuous"?    (Bk.  vii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xxxvi.,  v.  12.) 

The  Duke  of  Kau  is  represented  in  the  "Shu 
King"  (pt.  v.,  bk.  xv.,  v.  1)  to  have  said  of  old: 
"The  superior  man  rests  in  this,  that  he  will 
indulge  in  no  injurious  ease." 

Confucius  was  ever  insistent  upon  contrasting 
the  love  of  virtue  with  the  love  of  comfort  as  in 
these  sayings : ' '  The  scholar  who  cherishes  the  love 
of  comfort  is  not  fit  to  be  deemed  a  scholar." 
(Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  iii.)  "A  scholar,  whose 
mind  is  set  on  truth  and  who  is  ashamed  of  poor 
clothes  and  poor  food,  is  not  fit  to  be  discoursed 
with."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  ix.) 

Scarcely  less  apposite  to  the  conditions  of  the 
present  day  is  this  contrast  which  he  makes: 
"The  mind  of  the  superior  man  is  conversant 
with  righteousness;  the  mind  of  the  ordinary  man 
is  conversant  with  gain."  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c. 
xxi.) 

Yet  he  holds  that  one  may  receive  and  welcome 
his  reward,  albeit  that  to  secure  it  should  not  be 
his  purpose  in  doing  an  excellent  thing  or  service. 
Indeed,  one  must  not  even  set  before  him  the 
purpose  to  secure  rewards  which  are  real,  though 
not  material,  such  as  fame  or  even  success  and 
self -approbation.     The  course  of  virtue,  leading 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  41 

to  singleness  of  purpose  and  thoroughness  of  work, 
is  thus  marked  out:  "The  man  of  virtue  makes  the 
difficulty  to  be  overcome  his  first  business,  and 
success  only  a  subsequent  consideration."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  vi.,  c.  xx.) 

This  he  adverts  to  again,  saying:  "If  doing  what 
is  to  be  done  be  made  the  first  business,  and 
success  a  secondary  consideration,  is  not  this  the 
way  to  exalt  virtue?"     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxi., 

v.  3) 

And  repeatedly  in  the  "Li  Ki"  this  idea  is 
presented  in  such  varied  and  beautiful  forms  as 
these:  "The  Master  said:  'The  superior  man  will 
decline  a  position  of  high  honour,  but  not  one  that 
is  mean ;  will  decline  riches,  but  not  poverty.  .  .  . 
The  superior  man,  rather  than  be  rewarded  beyond 
his  desert,  will  have  his  desert  greater  than  the 
reward.  '"  (Bk.  xxvii.,  v.  7.)  "The  Master 
said:  'There  is  only  now  and  then  a  man  under 
heaven  who  loves  what  is  right  without  expecta- 
tion of  reward,  or  hates  what  is  wrong  without 
fear  of  consequences.'  "  (Bk.  xxix.,  v.  13.)  "A 
superior  man  will  not  for  counsel  of  little  value 
accept  a  great  reward,  nor  for  counsel  of  great 
value  a  small  reward."     (Bk.  xxix.,  v.  36.) 

Yet  more  reprehensible,  if  possible,  he  deems  it 
that  in  learning  the  purpose  be  not  solely  the 
attainment  of  truth  and  the  acquisition  of  know- 
ledge, but  also  or  even  exclusively  the  praise  or 
favours  of  others;  for  he  says:  "In  ancient  times 
men  learned  with  a  view  to  their  own  improve- 


42  The  Superior  Man 

ment.  Nowadays  men  learn  with  a  view  to  the 
approbation  of  others."  (Analects,  bk.  xiv., 
c.  xxv.) 

From  the  book  of  Mencius  the  following  is 
taken:  "Yang  Hoo  said:  'He  who  seeks  to  be 
rich  will  not  be  benevolent;  he  who  seeks  to  be 
benevolent  will  not  be  rich.'  "  (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  i., 
c.  Hi.,  v.  5.) 

The  following  inspiring  saying  from  the  "Li  Ki" 
(bk.  xxix.,  v.  27)  points  out  the  goal  to  attain 
which  the  sincere  mind  must  perforce  direct  all 
its  power:  "The  services  of  Hau  Ki  were  the  most 
meritorious  of  all  under  heaven.  .  .  .  But  all 
he  longed  for  was  that  his  actions  should  be 
better  than  the  fame  of  them,  and  so  he  said  of 
himself  that  he  was  simply  'a  man  who  is  useful 
toothers.'  " 

Mencius  supplies  these  infallible  indications 
that  one's  purpose  is  not  unmixed  with  selfish 
designs,  and  therefore  that  it  requires  careful 
scrutiny  and  rectification:  "If  a  man  love  others 
and  that  love  is  not  returned,  let  him  examine 
himself  as  to  his  love  of  others.  If  he  rules  others 
but  his  government  is  not  successful,  let  him 
examine  himself  as  to  wisdom.  If  he  is  polite  to 
others  but  they  impolite  to  him,  let  him  examine 
himself  as  to  real  respect  for  them.  When  by 
what  we  do  we  do  not  achieve  our  aim,  we  must 
examine  ourselves  at  every  point.  When  a  man 
is  right,  the  whole  empire  will  turn  to  him." 
(Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iv.,  v.  I,  2.) 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  43 

Rectified  Purpose.  "Exalted  merit  depends  on 
high  aim." 

This  precept,  taken  from  the  "Shu  King" 
(pt.  v.,  bk.  xxi.,  v.  4),  in  altered  form  and  other- 
wise applied,  runs  through  these  sentences  of 
Confucius:  "Do  not  be  desirous  of  having  things  \ 
done  quickly.  Do  not  look  at  small  advantages. 
Desire  to  have  things  done  quickly  prevents  their 
being  done  thoroughly.  Looking  at  small  ad- 
vantages prevents  great  affairs  from  being  accom- 
plished."    (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xvii.) 

Stern  self-examination  is  inculcated  in  the  "Li 
Ki"  as  the  first  duty  of  him  who  aspires  to  be  of 
service,  or  who  assumes  responsibilities:  "For 
one  who  wished  to  serve  his  ruler,  the  rule  was 
first  to  measure  his  abilities  and  duties  and  then 
enter  upon  the  responsibilities;  he  did  not  first 
enter  and  then  measure.  The  same  rule  applied 
when  one  begged  or  borrowed  from  others  or 
sought    to   enter   their    service."       (Bk.   xv.,   v. 

19.) 

And  yet  more  pointedly  in  this  from  the  "Shi 

King"  (Major  Odes,  decade  iii.,  ode  6):  "He 
was  always  anxious  lest  he  should  not  be  equal 
to  his  task." 

Thoroughness,  continuity  of  purpose  and  per- 
sistence are  strongly  urged;  but,  above  all  things, 
that  rigorous  judgment  of  a  man's  self  which 
alone  can  keep  his  effort  directed  toward  the  goal. 
On  this  point,  Confucius  sadly  and  repeatedly 
warns  his   disciples  against  over-confidence  that 


f 


> 


44  The  Superior  Man 

these  things  will  come  of  themselves,  saying:  "I 
have  not  seen  one  who  loves  virtue  as  he  loves 
beauty."  (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xvii.,  bk.  xv., 
c.  xii.)  And  again:  "I  have  not  yet  seen  one  who 
could  perceive  his  faults  and  inwardly  accuse 
himself."     (Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  xxvi.) 

Nevertheless  the  necessity  for  constant  self- 
inspection  was  held  before  his  disciples,  as  in 
this  parable  (Great  Learning,  c.  ii.):  "On  the 
bathtub  of  T'ang  the  following  words  were  en- 
graved :  '  If  you  can  purify  yourself  a  single  day, 
do  so  every  day.  Let  no  day  pass  without  puri- 
fication!' ";  and  the  same  he  said,  even  more 
vigorously,  thus:  "To  assail  one's  own  wickedness 
and  not  assail  that  of  others,  is  this  not  the  way 
to  correct  cherished  evil?"  (Analects,  bk.  xii., 
c.  xxi.,  v.  3.) 

On  another  occasion  Confucius  illustrated  it 
by  referring  to  archery  and  saying:  "In  archery, 
we  have  something  like  the  way  of  the  superior 
man.  When  the  archer  misses  the  centre  of  the 
target,  he  turns  around  and  seeks  the  cause  of  his 
failure  within  himself."  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
c.  xiv.,  v.  5.) 

His  disciple,  Tsang,  thus  describes  the  scrutiny 
to  which  he  habitually  and  daily  submitted  his 
own  thoughts  and  conduct:  "I  daily  examine 
myself  on  three  points:  whether,  in  transacting 
business  for  others  I  may  not  have  been  faithful ; 
whether,  in  intercourse  with  friends,  I  may  not 
have  been  sincere;  and  whether  I  may  not  have 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  45 

mastered  and  practised  the  instructions  of   my 
teacher."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  iv.) 

This  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  enjoins  as 
necessary  in  order  that  one  may  justly  cherish  true 
self-respect,  saying:  "The  superior  man  exam- 
ines his  heart  that  there  may  be  nothing  wrong 
there  and  that  he  may  have  no  cause  for  dissatis- 
faction with  himself."     (C.  xxxiii.,  v.  2.) 

Both  emulation  of  the  virtues  of  superior  men 
and  this  unrelenting  introspection  are  urged  in 
this  counsel:  "When  we  see  men  of  worth,  we 
should  think  of  equalling  them;  when  we  see  men 
of  the  contrary  character,  we  should  turn  inwards 
and  examine  ourselves."  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c. 
xvii.) 

Mencius  illustrates  this  and  enlarges  upon  it 
thus:  "To  support  the  resolution,  there  is  nothing 
better  than  to  make  the  desires  few.  Here  is  a 
man  whose  desires  are  few ;  in  some  things  he  may 
not  be  able  to  maintain  his  resolution,  but  they 
will  be  few.  Here  is  a  man  whose  desires  are 
many ;  in  some  things  he  may  be  able  to  maintain 
his  resolution,  but  they  will  be  few."  (Bk.  vii., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  xxxv.) 

The  emphasis  which  the  sage  thus  puts  upon 
desire  and  purpose,  does  not  imply  that  he  deems 
the  act  good  or  bad,  only  according  as  the  motive 
is  virtuous  or  evil.  The  act  will  be  judged  by  its 
effect  and  the  motive  also  by  its  result.  The  act 
may  affect  for  weal  or  woe  the  man  or  others  or 
both,  entirely  independently  of  the  purpose;  but 


46  The  Superior  Man 

the  wish  and  intention  immediately  affect  the 
development  of  the  man  himself,  and  make  him 
more  or  less  a  man. 

Therefore  is  it  that  from  earliest  youth  one 
must  be  careful  about  that  which  he  most  earn- 
estly desires,  not  because  he  will  not  obtain  it, 
but  because  he  will,  to  his  making  or  his  undoing; 
and  the  teachers  of  the  young  have  greater  reason 
to  direct  with  care  their  wishes,  longings,  and 
ambitions  than  merely  their  present  application 
to  study  and  work. 

Mencius  refers  to  this  when  he  aptly  says:  "Let 
a  man  stand  fast  in  the  nobler  part  of  himself 
and  the  meaner  part  will  not  be  able  to  take  it 
from  him."     (Bk.  vi.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xv.,  v.  2.) 

He  also  points  out  how  men  are  distinguished 
by  the  loftiness  or  lowness  of  their  purposes,  thus: 
"Those  who  follow  that  part  of  themselves  which 
is  great,  are  great  men;  those  who  follow  that 
part  of  themselves  which  is  little,  are  little  men." 
(Bk.  vi.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xv.,  v.  I.) 

The  intimate  and  immediate  connection  between 
sincerity  and  purity  of  purpose  is  self-evident ;  only 
by  the  most  searching  sincerity  can  the  human 
intellect  be  prevented  from  deceiving  itself,  where 
elemental  appetites,  useful  for  the  purposes  for 
which  they  exist  but  destructive  if  unrestrained, 
plead  for  freedom  from  restraint  and  even  for  stimu- 
lation as  ends  in  themselves  and  not  in  furtherance 
of  the  cosmic  purposes  of  self-preservation  and 
race-preservation  for  which  they  were  given. 


What  Constitutes  the  Superior  Man  47 

This  glorious  picture  of  achievement  Confucius 
puts  before  those  of  his  disciples  who  will  preserve 
in  thought  and  action  unswerving  integrity  of 
purpose  and  of  aim:  "Contemplating  good  and 
pursuing  it  as  if  they  could  not  attain  to  it,  con- 
templating evil  and  shrinking  from  it  as  they  would 
from  thrusting  the  hand  into  boiling  water — I 
have  seen  such  men  as  I  have  heard  such  words." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  xi.,  v.  1.) 

There  may,  then,  be  such  men;  no  impossible 
standard  is  here  set  up.  Confucius  had  long  held 
his  conduct  up  to  it  and  says  of  himself:  "With 
coarse  rice  to  eat,  with  water  to  drink  and  my 
bended  arm  for  a  pillow,  I  still  have  joy  in  the 
midst  of  these  things.  Riches  and  honours, 
acquired  by  unrighteousness,  are  to  me  as  a 
floating  cloud."     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xv.) 


CHAPTER  II 

SELF-DEVELOPMENT 

The  characteristics  of  the  superior  man  having 
been  presented,  it  is  in  logical  order  to  examine  the 
faculties  and  qualities  which  Confucius  would 
have  one  cultivate  to  attain  this  ideal  state.  First 
in  importance  is  the  will. 

The  Will.  "Their  purposes  being  rectified, 
they  cultivated  themselves." 

By  these  words  in  "The  Great  Learning" 
(Text,  v.  5)  it  is  meant  that  when  there  is  no 
conflict  of  aims,  of  duties  and  desires,  when  one 
wills  what  he  wishes,  and  with  all  his  heart  singly 
and  clearly  wishes  what  he  wills,  then  and  not 
till  then  does  the  will  become  clear  and  firm  and 
strong. 

The  man  is  his  will;  back  of  his  will  is  his  pur- 
pose; and  back  of  his  purpose,  his  desire.  If  his 
knowledge  enable  him  to  make  right  choices,  he 
should  be  sincere,  his  desires  should  be  disciplined, 
his  purpose  lofty,  and,  resting  thereupon  as  on  a 
rock,  his  will  fixed  and  immovable.  That  is 
character. 

Confucius  puts  it:  "If  the  will  be  set  on  virtue, 
48," 


Self-Development  49 

there  will  be  no  practice  of  wickedness."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  iv.,  c.  iv.)  True;  for  when  the  will 
rests  upon  set  purpose,  based  upon  purified  desire, 
born  of  knowledge  and  discriminating  investiga- 
tion of  phenomena,  nothing  can  undermine  it ! 

This  rectification  of  the  antecedent  conditions 
is  what  the  sage  refers  to  when  he  says :  "  To  subdue 
one's  self  and  return  to  propriety  is  perfect  virtue" 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  i),  and  again:  "The  firm,  the 
enduring,  the  simple,  and  the  unpretentious  are 
near  to  virtue."     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxvii.) 

That  the  will  is  proved  by  its  resistance  rather 
than  its  impelling  force,  Mencius  says  in  this: 
"Men  must  be  resolute  about  what  they  will  not 
do  and  then  they  are  able  to  act  with  vigor."  (Bk. 
iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  viii.) 

The  same  is  meant,  i.  e.,  that  if  one's  trust  is 
thus  grounded,  nothing  external  can  shake  his 
determination,  when  Confucius  says:  "The  com- 
mander of  the  forces  of  a  large  state  may  be  car- 
ried off,  but  the  will  of  even  a  common  man 
cannot  be  taken  from  him."  (Analects,  bk.  ix., 
c.  xxv.)  So  speaks  Ibsen  who  puts  into  the  mouth 
of  Brand: 

"  That  one  cannot  him  excuses, 
But  never  that  he  does  not  will." 

Confucius  refuses  to  accept  the  excuse  of  inabil- 
ity unless  one  actually  expires  in  a  supreme  effort 
to  achieve.  Therefore,  when  his  disciple,  Yen 
K'ew,  said:  "It  is  not  that  I  do  not  delight  in  your 


50  The  Superior  Man 

doctrines,  but  my  strength  is  insufficient,"  he 
admonished  him:  "They  whose  strength  is  in- 
sufficient give  over  in  the  middle  of  the  way,  but 
now  you  do  but  set  limits  unto  yourself."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  vi.,  c.  x.) 

The  scorn  of  craven  compromise  is  well  voiced 
in  this:  "Tsze-Chang  said,  'When  a  man  holds 
fast  virtue,  but  without  seeking  to  enlarge  it,  and 
credits  right  principles,  but  without  firm  sincer- 
ity, what  account  can  be  made  of  his  existence  or 
non-existence?"     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  ii.) 

That  the  path  of  duty  leads  to  the  very  brink  of 
the  grave — and  beyond  it — Confucius  says  in  no 
uncertain  language:  "The  determined  scholar  and 
the  man  of  virtue  will  not  seek  to  live  at  the  ex- 
pense of  injuring  their  virtue.  They  will  even 
sacrifice  their  lives  to  preserve  their  virtue  com- 
plete." (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  viii.)  "The  man 
who  in  the  view  of  gain  thinks  of  righteousness, 
who  in  the  view  of  danger  is  prepared  to  give  up 
his  life,  and  who  does  not  forget  an  old  agreement, 
however  far  back  it  extends — such  a  man  may  be 
reckoned  a  complete  man."  (Analects,  bk.  xiv., 
c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

His  disciple,  Tsze-Chang,  said  of  this:  "The 
scholar,  beholding  threatened  danger,  is  prepared 
to  sacrifice  his  life.  When  the  opportunity  for 
gain  is  presented  to  him,  he  thinks  of  righteous- 
ness."    (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  i.) 

This  picture,  which  to  uninstructed  mortals 
may  seem  dark  and  forbidding, — it  should  not 


Self-Development  51 

seem  so,  since  to  die  is  before  every  man  and  few 
can  hope  to  have  so  noble  an  end, — Confucius  did 
not  always  hold  before  the  eyes  of  his  disciples, 
however,  but  on  the  contrary  justly  declared,  in 
the  face  of  their  craven  dread:  "Virtue  is  more  to 
man  than  either  fire  or  water.  I  have  seen  men 
die  by  treading  upon  fire  or  water,  but  I  have 
never  seen  a  man  die  by  treading  the  path  of 
virtue."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxiv.) 

It  costs  really  nothing  to  will  that  which  is  good 
and  beneficial;  the  cost  is  all  on  the  other  side. 
That  one  sacrifices,  is  pure  delusion;  the  pleasure 
as  well  as  the  solid  benefit  is  to  be  found  where 
the  enlightened  will  would  bear  us.  Such  conduct 
is  heroic  to  contemplate ;  but  it  is  simple  truth  and 
not  merely  personal  praise  which  Confucius 
spake  of  another:  "With  a  single  bamboo  dish  of 
rice,  a  single  gourd  dish  of  drink,  and  living  in  a 
mean,  narrow  lane,  while  others  could  not  have 
endured  the  distress,  he  did  not  allow  his  joy  to 
be  affected  by  it."     (Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  ix.) 

It  might,  indeed  it  ought  and  would,  be  true 
of  any  other,  if  unspoiled;  and,  as  he  has  well  said: 
"For  a  morning's  anger,  to  wreck  one's  life  and 
involve  the  lives  of  his  parents,  is  not  this  a  case 
of  delusion?"     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxi.,  v.  3.) 

And,  while  not  so  strikingly  and  obviously  true, 
this  statement  holds  for  every  aberration  from  the 
path  of  duty,  into  which  one  may  believe  himself 
led  by  reason  of  the  greater  pleasure  and  satis- 
faction that  it  seems  to  offer,  be  it  what  it  may. 


52  The  Superior  Man 

The  beauty,  the  compensations  and  relaxations 
of  the  upward  course  are  thus  set  forth  by  the 
sage:  "Let  the  will  be  set  on  the  path  of  duty! 
Let  every  attainment  of  what  is  good  be  firmly 
grasped!  Let  perfect  virtue  be  emulated!  Let 
relaxation  and  enjoyment  be  found  in  the  polite 
arts!"     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  vi.) 

To  the  instructed  mind  there  is  nothing  unin- 
viting in  this  prospect ;  and  low  and  mind-destroy- 
ing pleasures  and  comforts  which  are  in  fact, 
though  not  apparently,  lower  and  more  destructive 
are  well  abandoned  for  these  higher,  simpler, 
keener,  and  more  abiding  satisfactions.  Confu- 
cius puts  it  also  more  explicitly  thus:  "To  find 
enjoyment  in  the  discriminating  study  of  cere- 
monies and  music;  to  find  enjoyment  in  speaking 
of  the  goodness  of  others;  to  find  enjoyment  in 
having  many  worthy  friends: — these  are  advan- 
tageous. To  find  enjoyment  in  extravagant 
pleasures;  to  find  enjoyment  in  idleness  and  saun- 
tering; to  find  enjoyment  in  the  pleasures  of 
feasting: — these  are  injurious."  (Analects,  bk. 
xvi.,  c.  v.) 

Even  reverses  and  hardships  have  their  lesson 
and  reward  if  one  but  meet  them  with  resolution; 
for  as  Mencius  says:  "When  Heaven  is  about  to 
confer  a  great  office  on  any  man,  it  first  disciplines 
his  mind  with  suffering  and  his  bones  and  sinews 
with  toil.  It  exposes  him  to  want  and  subjects 
him  to  extreme  poverty.  It  confounds  his  under- 
takings.    By  all  these  methods  it  stimulates  his 


Self-Development  55 

mind,  hardens  him,  and  supplies  his  shortcomings." 
(Bk.  vi.f  pt.  ii.,  c.  xv.f  v.  2.) 

This  development  of  the  will,  which  is  the 
development  of  the  man,  is  therefore  not  a  thing 
to  terrify  or  repel.  Instead,  it  is  mastery,  power, 
sway,  achievement — that  for  which  the  mind  of 
man  longs  unceasingly.  And  it  comes  of  itself, 
if  the  basis  for  it  has  been  safely  and  carefully 
laid  in  purified  desires  and  righteous  aims,  without 
effort,  without  strain,  without  pain  or  penalty. 

"Is  virtue  a  thing  remote?"  asked  the  sage; 
and  answered:  "I  wish  to  be  virtuous,  and  lo, 
virtue  is  at  hand!"     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxix.) 

What,  then,  is  this  will?  What,  this  virtue? 
The  disciples  of  Confucius  handed  the  secret  of  it 
down  from  one  to  another,  in  these  words:  "The 
doctrine  of  our  master  is  to  be  true  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  our  nature  and  the  benevolent  exercise 
of  them  to  others."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xv.,  v.  2.) 

That  the  joy  of  well-doing  is  more  than  com- 
parable with  the  pleasure  of  abandonment  to 
sensual  playing  with  elemental  appetites,  is  said 
in  these  words  of  Wu,  reported  in  the  "  Shu  King  " : 
"I  have  heard  that  the  good  man,  doing  good, 
finds  the  day  insufficient;  and  that  the  evil  man, 
doing  evil,  also  finds  the  day  insufficient."  (Pt.  v., 
bk.  i.,  sect.  2.)' 

Fortitude.  When  the  will  accords  completely 
with  the  purpose  and  the  desire,  courage  follows 
necessarily;  for,  if  one  desires  a  given  result, 
designs  to  compass  it,  and  wills  to  achieve  it,  it 


54  The  Superior  Man 

can  only  mean  that  he  is  not  fearful  about  it  but 
instead  is  cool  and  determined.  As  it  costs  noth- 
ing to  will,  when  the  purposes  are  rectified;  so, 
when  the  will  is  clear  and  firm,  it  costs  nothing 
to  be  brave.  Therefore  in  "The  Great  Learning" 
it  is  said  that  by  this  course,  "unperturbed  resolve 
is  attained."  Confucius  elsewhere  puts  it:  "To 
see  what  is  right  and  not  to  do  it,  is  want  of 
courage."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xxiv.,  v.  2.) 

For  if  one  see  what  is  right,  he  should  think 
sincerely  about  it,  without  self-delusion;  and, 
thinking  thus,  his  desires  and  his  purposes  should 
be  rectified  and  therefrom  the  will  to  do  right  will 
flow.  And  if  he  see  the  truth  and  do  not  do  these 
things,  it  is  plainly  want  of  courage — the  courage 
to  cast  aside  comfortable  delusions,  to  think  sin- 
cerely and  be  undeceived.  When  undeceived 
and  with  desire  and  resolve  purified,  the  will  and 
courage  follow  inevitably. 

Confucius  again  refers  to  this,  saying:  "When 
you  have  faults,  do  not  fear  to  abandon  them." 
(Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  viii.,  v.  4.)  This  is  also  the 
gist  of  the  following  injunction  from  the  "Li  Ki" 
(bk.  xv.,  v.  22) :  "Do  not  try  to  defend  or  conceal 
what  was  wrong  in  the  past." 

So  also  speaks  Yueh  in  the  "Shu  King":  "Do 
not  be  ashamed  of  mistakes  and  so  proceed  to 
make  them  crimes!"  (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  viii.,  sect,  ii., 
v.i.) 

The  fear  here  referred  to  is  doubtless  both  the 
fear  of  discomfort  and  the  fear  of  the  prying  eyes 


Self-Development  55 

and  the  caustic  tongues  of  others.  To  this  craven 
dread,  reference  is  made  when  Tsze-Hea  says: 
"The  inferior  man  is  sure  to  gloss  his  faults." 
(Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  viii.)  The  remedy  for  it, 
Confucius  demonstrates  in  these  brave  words: 
"I  am  fortunate!  If  I  have  any  faults,  people 
are  sure  to  know  them."  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c. 
xxx.,  v.  3.) 

Thus  Mencius  puts  it:  "When  any  one  told 
Tsze-loo  that  he  had  a  fault,  he  rejoiced."  (Bk. 
ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  viii.,  v.  I.) 

Again  speaking  in  the  "Yi  King"  in  praise  of 
the  son  of  the  Yen  family,  Confucius  says:  "If 
anything  that  he  did  was  not  good,  he  was  sure 
to  become  conscious  of  it;  and,  when  he  knew  it, 
he  did  not  do  the  thing  again."  (Appendix  iii., 
v.  42.) 

So,  also,  King  Thang  is  represented  in  the  "Shu 
King"  as  saying:  "The  good  in  you  I  will  not 
dare  to  keep  concealed;  and  for  the  evil  in  me,  I 
will  not  dare  to  forgive  myself."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  iii., 

v.  3-) 

And  in  the  "Shu  King,"  also,  the  great  Shun 
is  reported  to  have  said:  "When  I  am  doing  wrong, 
it  is  yours  to  correct  me.  Do  not  concur  to  my 
face  and  when  you  have  retired,  speak  otherwise!" 
(Pt.  ii.,  bk.  iv.,  1.) 

Fearlessness  Confucius  ever  named  as  an  attri- 
bute of  the  superior  man,  saying  (Analects,  bk. 
xiv.,  c.  xxx.,  v.  1) :  "The  way  of  the  superior  man 
is  threefold,  but  I  am  not  equal  to  it.     Virtuous, 


56  The  Superior  Man 

he  is  free  from  anxieties ;  wise,  he  is  free  from  per- 
plexities; bold,  he  is  free  from  fear";  and  he  pre- 
sents this  opposite  picture  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  ii.) : 
"They  who  are  without  virtue  cannot  abide  long 
either  in  a  condition  of  poverty  and  hardship  or  in 
a  condition  of  enjoyment." 

This  is  even  more  strikingly  presented  in  the 
following:  "Having  not  and  yet  affecting  to  have, 
empty  and  yet  affecting  to  be  full,  straitened 
and  yet  affecting  to  be  at  ease!  It  is  difficult 
with  such  characteristics  to  have  constancy." 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxv.,  v.  3.) 

And  in  this  contrast:  "The  superior  man  is 
satisfied  and  composed,  the  ordinary  man  is 
always  full  of  distress."  (Analects,  bk.  vii., 
c.  xxxvi.) 

The  cowardice  of  such  concern  about  the  future 
as  sets  one  to  speculating  and  worrying  is  con- 
demned in  the  "Li  Ki"  (bk.  xv.,  22)  as  follows: 
"Do  not  try  ...  to  fathom  what  has  not  yet 
arrived." 

The  sage  was  not  unaware  that  boldness  may 
be  the  result  of  ignorance  as  well  as  of  knowledge, 
that  it  may  be  madness  and  folly  instead  of  clear 
sanity  and  wisdom.  It  was  concerning  such  that 
Confucius  spoke  when  he  said  of  the  superior 
man:  "He  hates  those  who  have  valour  only  and 
are  unobservant  of  propriety.  He  hates  those 
who  are  forward  and  determined  and  at  the  same 
time  of  contracted  understanding."  (Analects, 
bk.  xvii.,  c.  xxiv.,  v.  2.) 


Self-Development  57 

That  the  bravery  of  the  superior  man  and  the 
bravado  of  the  inferior  should  be  distinguished,  is 
the  gist  of  the  following  saying :  "  Men  of  principle 
are  sure  to  be  bold,  but  those  who  are  bold  may 
not  always  be  men  of  principle."  (Analects,  bk. 
xiv.,  c.  v.) 

The  absolute  need  of  fearlessness,  Mencius 
enjoins  in  this  which  he  puts  into  the  mouth  of 
Mang  She-Shay:  "I  look  upon  not  conquering 
and  conquering  in  the  same  way.  To  measure 
the  enemy  and  then  advance,  to  calculate  the 
chances  of  victory  and  then  engage — this  is  to 
stand  in  dread  of  the  opposing  force.  How  can  I 
make  certain  of  conquering?  But  I  can  rise 
superior  to  all  fear."     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  5.) 

The  shame  of  moral  cowardice  is  well  set  forth 
by  Confucius  in  the  "Yi  King,"  thus:  "If  one  be 
distressed  by  what  need  not  distress  him,  his 
name  is  sure  to  be  disgraced."  (Appendix  iii., 
sect,  ii.,  c.  v.) 

What,  then,  may  the  superior  man  fear?  The 
answer,  disclosing  that  upon  which  the  courage 
of  the  superior  man  rests  securely,  is  in  this  query : 
"They  sought  to  act  virtuously  and  they  did  so; 
and  what  was  there  for  them  to  repine  about?" 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xiv.,  v.  2.) 

The  freedom  from  fear  which  is  here  referred  to 
costs  no  effort;  if  the  precedent  conditions  have 
been  fulfilled,  it  is  their  natural  and  necessary 
consequence  and  appears  in  the  noble  attributes 
of  the  superior  man,   to  which  Confucius  often 


58  The  Superior  Man 

adverted,  as  thus:  "The  superior  man  has  neither 
anxiety  nor  fear."  (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  I.) 
"When  internal  examination  discovers  nothing 
wrong,  what  is  there  to  be  anxious  about,  what  is 
there  to  fear?"     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

Poise.  "To  this" — i.  e.,  to  unperturbed  calm 
■ — "succeeds  tranquil  poise.  In  this  poise  is  found 
deliberation." 

This  passage  from  "The  Great  Learning" 
(Text,  v.  2)  aims  to  enforce  that  it  is  not  enough 
that  one  should  be  resolute  and  composed  in  the 
presence  of  danger;  he  must  ever  be  calm  and 
resolute.  Thus  the  sage  has  said:  "What  the 
superior  man  seeks,  is  in  himself;  what  the  ordinary- 
man  seeks,  is  in  others."  (Analects,  bk.  xiv., 
c.  xxviii.)  And  his  disciple,  Tsang,  says:  "The 
superior  man  in  his  thoughts  does  not  go  out  of 
his  place."     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxviii.) 

In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  ii.,  c.  iii.),  it  is 
put  thus:  "The  superior  man  does  not  in  his 
thoughts  go  beyond  the  position  in  which  he  is." 

And  thus,  also:  "The  influence  of  the  world 
would  make  no  change  in  him ;  he  would  do  nothing 
merely  to  secure  fame.  He  can  live  withdrawn 
from  the  world  without  regret;  he  can  experience 
disapproval  without  a  troubled  mind.  .  .  .  He  is 
not  to  be  torn  from  his  root."  (Appendix  iv., 
c.  ii.,  v.  41.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  this  is  much  expatiated  upon, 
in  part  only  as  follows:  "The  scholar  keeps  himself 
free  from  all  stain;  ...  he  does  not  go  among 


Self-Development  59 

those  who  are  low,  to  make  himself  seem  high,  nor 
set  himself  among  those  who  are  foolish,  to  make 
himself  seem  wise;  ...  he  does  not  approve 
those  who  think  as  he,  nor  condemn  those  who 
think  differently;  thus  he  takes  his  stand  alone 
and  pursues  his  course,  unattended."  (Bk.  xxxviii., 
v.  15O 

The  reward  for  this  attainment  of  perfect  poise 
is  described  in  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  iii., 
sect,  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  8),  in  these  words:  "With  the  at- 
tainment of  such  ease  and  such  freedom  from 
laborious  effort,  the  mastery  is  had  of  all  principles 
under  the  sky." 

And  the  mode  and  manner  of  it  are  portrayed 
in  the  same  book  (appendix  iii.,  sect,  ii.,  c.  v., 
v.  44)  by  this  saying  attributed  to  Confucius: 
"The  superior  man  composes  himself  before  trying 
to  move  others;  makes  his  mind  at  rest  and  easy, 
before  he  opens  his  mouth;  determines  upon  his 
method  of  intercourse  with  others,  before  he 
seeks  anything  of  them." 

The  central  conception  is  that  the  man  should 
be  so  balanced  that,  instead  of  giving  unconscious 
reactions  or  semi-conscious  responses  to  stimuli 
from  without,  every  response,  however  promptly 
delivered  in  speech  or  act,  should  be  purposive — 
the  consequence  of  intelligent  understanding  and 
resolve. 

Mencius  said  of  himself  (bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  1) : 
"At  forty  I  attained  to  an  unperturbed  mind"; 
and   Confucius  of  himself   (Analects,   bk.   vi.,   c. 


60  The  Superior  Man 

xxvii.) :  "There  may  be  those  who  do  this  or  that, 
without  knowing  why.     I  do  not  do  so." 

The  sage  also  eulogizes  the  balanced,  self- 
centred  man  in  no  uncertain  terms,  as  follows: 
"He  with  whom  neither  calumny  which  slowly 
soaks  into  the  mind,  nor  insults  that  startle  like 
a  wound  to  the  flesh,  are  successful,  may  indeed 
be  called  intelligent;  yea,  he  with  whom  neither 
soaking  calumny  nor  startling  insults  are  success- 
ful may  be  called  far-seeing."  (Analects,  bk.  xii., 
c.  vi.) 

Here  are  yet  other  words  of  penetrating  wis- 
dom concerning  the  advantages  of  this  perfect 
poise  and  calm:  "He  who  does  not  anticipate 
attempts  to  deceive  him  nor  think  beforehand  of 
his  not  being  believed,  and  yet  apprehends  these 
things  readily  when  they  occur,  is  he  not  a  man 
of  superior  worth?"  (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c. 
xxxviii.) 

Mencius  also  characterizes  such  a  man  as  fol- 
lows: "When  he  obtains  the  desired  position  to 
practise  virtue  for  the  good  of  the  people;  when 
disappointed  in  that  ambition  to  practise  virtue 
for  himself;  to  be  above  the  power  of  riches  and 
honours  to  corrupt,  of  poverty  and  a  mean  condi- 
tion to  swerve  and  of  might  and  sway  to  bend — 
these  characterize  the  great  man."  (Bk.  iii., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  3.) 

L  onfucius  deemed  it  indispensable  for  a  ruler 
to  thus  possess  his  soul.  Alone  it  would  make  a 
ruler  good,  if  not  indeed  great.     Therefore,  he 


Self-Development  61 

says:  "May  not  Shun  be  instanced  as  having 
governed  efficiently  without  exertion?  What  did 
he  do?  He  did  nothing  but  gravely  and  reverently 
occupy  his  imperial  seat."  (Analects,  bk.  xv., 
c.  iv.) 

And  again  in  these  enthusiastic  words:  "How 
majestic  was  the  manner  in  which  Shun  and  Yu 
held  possession  of  the  empire,  as  if  it  were  nothing 
to  them!"     (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xviii.) 

How  this  singleness  of  purpose  and  this  perfect 
poise  of  soul,  unsuspected  during  an  uneventful 
life,  when  great  occasion  arises,  stand  forth  and 
reveal  the  man,  is  the  burden  of  this  saying: 
"The  superior  man  cannot  be  known  in  little 
matters  but  he  may  be  entrusted  with  great  con- 
cerns."    (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxiii.) 

Self-Control.  "Want  of  forbearance  in  small 
matters  confounds  great  plans."  (Analects,  bk. 
xv.,  c.  xxvi.) 

The  need  for  constancy  and  self-control  is 
often  urged  by  the  sage,  as  thus:  "Inconstant  in 
his  virtue,  he  will  be  visited  with  disgrace." 
(Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxii.,  v.  2.)  In  the  "Shu 
King,"  I  Yin  is  represented  as  expressing  this 
sentiment:  "Be  careful  to  strive  after  the  virtue 
of  self-restraint  and  to  cherish  far-reaching  plans." 
(Pt.  iv.,  bk.  v.,  sect.  I,  2.) 

What  is  emphasized  in  these  passages,  is  '^hat 
he  who  has  formed  worthy  conceptions  of  Hhe 
significance  of  life  and  correct  designs  for  accom- 
plishing  its   ends    must    not   permit   himself,   at 


62  The  Superior  Man 

unguarded  moments,  to  be  surprised  into  revela- 
tions of  deeper-seated  longings,  by  the  unexpected 
presentation  of  opportunities  for  the  safe  enjoy- 
ment of  sensual  delights  or  by  the  excitement  of 
rage  or  terror  or  other  unworthy  emotion. 

It  is  well  said  in  the  "Shi  King"  (Minor  Odes 
of  the  Kingdom,  decade  v.,  ode  2):  "Men  who 
are  grave  and  wise,  though  they  drink,  are  masters 
of  themselves.  Men  who  are  benighted  and 
ignorant  become  slaves  of  drink  and  more  so, 
daily.  Be  careful,  each  of  you,  of  your  conduct! 
What  Heaven  confers,  when  once  lost,  will  not 
be  regained." 

The  necessity  for  reflection  and  consideration, 
though  it  be  but  momentary,  before  responding 
to  any  impulse  from  without,  either  in  speech  or 
in  action,  instead  of  the  automatic,  animal  response 
of  a  curse  or  a  blow,  a  smile  or  a  caress,  or  whatever 
it  may  be  when  one  is  played  upon,  is  always 
present  in  the  mind  of  the  sage.  It  is  significantly 
expressed  thus:  "Ke  Wan  Tze  thought  thrice 
and  then  acted.  When  the  Master  was  in- 
formed of  it,  he  said:  'Twice  may  do.'"  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  v.,  c.  xix.) 

That  even  greater  prudence  in  speech  is  desir- 
able, is  indicated  by  this  reply  to  the  inquiry  of 
Tsze  kung:  "What  constitutes  the  superior  man? " 
"He  acts  before  he  speaks  and  afterwards  speaks 
in  accordance  with  his  act."  (Analects,  bk.  ii., 
c.  xiii.) 

Reasons  for  reticence  are  given  in  several  pas- 


Self-Development  63 

sages," from  which  these  are  culled:  "The  Master 
said,  'The  superior  man  is  modest  in  his  speech 
but  exceeds  in  his  actions."  (Analects,  bk.  xiv., 
c.  xxix.)  "This  man  seldom  speaks;  when  he 
does,  he  is  sure  to  hit  the  point."  (Analects, 
bk.  xi.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  3.)  "When  a  man  feels  the 
difficulty  of  doing,  can  he  be  otherwise  than  cau- 
tious and  slow  in  speaking?"  (Analects,  bk.  xii., 
c.  iii.,  v.  3.)  "The  reason  why  the  ancients  did 
not  readily  give  utterance  to  their  words  was 
because  they  feared  lest  their  deeds  should 
not  come  up  to  them."  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c. 
xxii.) 

The  prudence  of  this  course  is  illustrated  in  the 
"Shi  King"  (Major  Odes,  decade  iii.,  ode  2)  by 
this  apt  comparison:  "A  flaw  in  a  mace  of 
white  jade  may  be  ground  away,  but  a  word 
spoken  amiss  cannot  be  mended." 

This  is  expatiated  upon  by  the  sage  as  follows: 
"Hear  much  and  put  aside  the  points  of  which 
you  arc  in  doubt,  while  you  speak  cautiously  at 
the  same  time  of  others; — then  you  will  afford 
few  occasions  for  blame.  See  much  and  put  aside 
the  things  which  seem  perilous,  while  you  are 
cautious  at  the  same  time  in  carrying  the  others 
into  practice; — then  you  will  have  few  occasions 
for  repentance."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xvii.,  v.  2.) 

And  when  Fan  Ch'e  asked  about  perfect  virtue, 
Confucius  replied  in  practical  terms:  "It  is,  in 
retirement,  to  be  sedately  grave;  in  the  manage- 
ment of  business,  to  be  reverently  attentive;    in 


64  The  Superior  Man 

intercourse  with  others,  to  be  strictly  sincere." 
(Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xix.) 

The  portrait  of  such  a  man  is  well  drawn  in 
these  outlines:  "Looked  at  from  a  distance,  he 
appears  stern;  when  approached,  he  is  mild;  when 
he  is  heard  to  speak,  his  language  is  firm  and 
decided."     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  ix.) 

By  this  is  not  meant  mere  obstinacy,  but  firm- 
ness, based  upon  resolve,  resting  in  turn  on  rec- 
tified purpose,  that  in  turn  upon  clarified  and 
illuminated  desire,  and  all  upon  intelligent  inves- 
tigation and  determination  of  facts.  Therefore, 
he  has  also  said:  "The  superior  man  is  correctly 
firm,  and  not  firm  merely."  (Analects,  bk.  xv., 
c.  xxxvi.) 

Dignity  also  accompanies  this  aplomb  or  mental 
and  moral  balance,  as  a  consequence  and  not  as  a 
thing  which  must  be  thought  about  and  striven 
for — simple  dignity  which  comes  as  naturally  as 
the  bloom  upon  the  peach  or  upon  the  cheek  of 
youth  or  maiden — never  to  be  confounded  with 
arrogance.  Of  this,  we  learn:  "The  superior  man 
has  dignified  ease  without  pride.  The  ordinary 
man  has  pride  without  dignified  ease."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxvi.) 

Moderation.  "Sincerely  hold  fast  the  due 
mean."     (Analects,  bk.  xx.,  c.  L,  v.  i.) 

"The  Master  said:  'Alas,  how  the  path  of  the 
mean  is  not  walked  in ! '  "  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
c.  v.) 

An  entire  book,  bearing  the  title:  "The  Doctrine 


Self-Development  65 

of  the  Mean,"  consisting  chiefly  of  sayings  of 
Confucius  upon  this  subject,  survives.  The  fol- 
lowing account  of  its  origin  is  found  in  the  intro- 
duction :  ' '  This  work  contains  the  law  of  the  mind 
which  was  handed  down  from  one  to  another  in 
the  Confucian  School  till  Tsze-tsze  (the  grandson 
of  Confucius),  fearing  lest  in  the  course  of  time 
errors  should  arise  about  it.  committed  it  to  writing 
and  delivered  it  to  Mencius." 

What  is  meant  by  "the  mean"  is  the  virtue 
which  the  ancient  Greeks  especially  praised  under 
the  name  of  temperance.  It  is  denned  in  the 
"Li  Ki"  as  follows:  "Pride  should  not  be  allowed 
to  grow.  The  desires  should  not  be  indulged. 
The  will  should  not  be  gratified  to  the  full.  Pleas- 
ure should  not  be  carried  to  excess."  (Bk.  i., 
sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ii.) 

Confucius  attached  great  importance  to  this 
idea,  saying:  "Perfect  is  the  virtue  which  is  ac- 
cording to  the  mean.  They  have  long  been  rare 
among  the  people  who  could  practise  it."  (Doc- 
trine of  the  Mean,  c.  iii.) 

He  also  said:  "I  know  how  it  is  that  the  path 
of  the  mean  is  not  walked  in;  the  knowing  go 
beyond  it  and  the  stupid  do  not  come  up  to  it. 
I  know  how  it  is  that  the  path  of  the  mean  is  not 
understood;  the  men  of  talents  and  virtue  go 
beyond  it,  and  the  worthless  do  not  come  up  to  it." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  iv.,  v.  I.) 

The  difficulty,  indeed  the  well-nigh  impossibility, 
of  attaining  this  perfect  self-control  was  appreci- 
• 


66  The  Superior  Man 

ated  by  Confucius,  who  often  spoke  of  it,  saying: 
"All  men  say,  'We  are  wise';  but  happening  to 
choose  the  path  of  the  mean,  they  are  not  able  to 
keep  it  for  a  round  month."  (Doctrine  of  the 
Mean,  c.  vi.) 

And  again:  "The  empire,  its  states,  and  its 
families  may  be  perfectly  ruled,  dignities  and 
emoluments  may  be  declined,  naked  weapons 
may  be  trampled  under  the  feet,  but  the  course 
of  the  mean  cannot  be  attained  to."  (Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,  c.  ix.) 

And  in  another  place  he  says:  "The  good  man 
tries  to  proceed  according  to  the  right  path,  but 
when  he  has  gone  half-way  he  abandons  it." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xi.,  v.  2.) 

Yet  he  does  not  overemphasize  this  nor  fail  to 
recognize  that  this  path  is  as  frequently  found  by 
the  lowly  and  humble  as  by  those  who  are  con- 
scious of  greatness.  He  says,  instead:  "The  path 
is  not  far  from  man.  When  men  try  to  pursue  a 
course  which  is  far  from  the  common  indications 
of  consciousness,  this  course  cannot  be  considered 
the  path."     (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xiii.,  v.  I.) 

Mencius  in  two  places  reverently  echoes  this 
sentiment,  as  follows:  "The  path  of  duty  lies  in 
what  is  near  and  men  seek  for  it  in  what  is  remote ; 
to  follow  it  is  easy  and  men  seek  it  among  arduous 
undertakings."  (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xi.)  "The  way 
of  truth  is  like  a  great  road.  It  is  not  hard  to 
find  it.  The  trouble  is  only  that  men  will  not 
look  for  it.     Go  home  and  seek  it  and  you  will 


Self-Development  67 

find  many  ready  to  point  it  out."  (Bk.  vi.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  ii.,  v.  7.) 

This  strange  but  necessary  combination  of  sim- 
plicity and  complexity,  of  things  easy  and  things 
difficult  to  understand,  is  well  set  forth  in  the 
following  cryptic  language:  "The  way  of  the  supe- 
rior man  may  be  found  in  its  simple -elements  in 
the  intercourse  of  common  men  and  women,  in 
its  utmost  reaches  it  shines  brightly  through 
Heaven  and  earth."  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c. 
xii.,  v.  4.) 

Confucius  finds  the  starting  point  for  following 
the  path  of  the  mean  in  this,  that  one  should  be 
natural,  should  be  himself.  The  whole  picture 
of  what  is  fundamentally  necessary  and  of  what 
result  may  be  hoped  for  is  in  the  following  from 
the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  (c.  xiv.) : 

"The  superior  man  does  what  is  proper  to  the 
station  in  which  he  is,  he  does  not  desire  to  go 
beyond  this.  In  a  position  of  wealth  and  honour 
he  does  what  is  proper  to  a  position  of  wealth  and 
honour;  in  a  poor  and  low  position,  he  does  what 
is  proper  to  a  poor  and  low  position;  situated 
among  barbarous  tribes,  he  does  what  is  proper 
to  a  situation  among  barbarous  tribes;  in  a  posi- 
tion of  sorrow  and  difficulty,  he  does  what  is  proper 
to  a  position  of  sorrow  and  difficulty. 

"The  superior  man  can  find  himself  in  no  posi- 
tion in  which  he  is  not  himself.  In  a  high  situa- 
tion he  does  not  treat  with  contempt  his  inferiors, 
in  a  low  situation  he  does  not  court  the  favour  of 


68  The  Superior  Man 

his  superiors.  He  rectifies  himself,  and  seeks  for 
nothing  from  others,  so  that  he  has  no  dissatis- 
faction. 

"He  does  not  murmur  against  Heaven  nor 
grumble  against  men.  Thus  it  is  that  the  superior 
man  is  quiet  and  calm,  waiting  for  the  appoint- 
ments of  Heaven,  while  the  inferior  man  walks  in 
dangerous  paths,  looking  for  lucky  occurrences." 

This  path,  according  to  Confucius,  lies  before 
every  man.  It  is  put  thus  in  the  "Doctrine  of 
the  Mean"  in  a  passage  deemed  by  Chinese 
scholars  to  refer  to  Confucius  only:  "It  waits  for 
the  proper  man,  and  then  it  is  trodden.  Hence 
it  is  said,  'Only  by  perfect  virtue  can  the  perfect 
path  in  all  its  courses  be  realized.'  Therefore 
the  superior  man  honours  his  virtuous  nature  and 
maintains  constant  inquiry  and  study,  seeking  to 
carry  it  out  to  its  breadth  and  greatness,  so  as  to 
omit  none  of  the  most  exquisite  and  minute 
points  which  it  embraces,  and  to  raise  it  to  its 
greatest  height  and  brilliancy,  so  as  to  pursue  the 
course  of  the  mean."     (C.  xxvii.,  v.  4,  5,  6.) 

The  qualities  of  the  man  who  follows  the  path 
of  the  mean  are  matters  about  which  the  author 
of  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  becomes  enthusi- 
astic, indulging  in  declarations  such  as  these: 
"It  is  only  he,  possessed  of  all  sagely  qualities 
that  can  exist  under  Heaven,  who  shows  him- 
self quick  in  apprehension,  clear  in  discernment, 
of  far-reaching  intelligence  and  all-embracing 
knowledge,  fitted  to  exercise  rule;  magnanimous, 


Self-Development  69 

generous,  benign  and  mild,  fitted  to  exercise  for- 
bearance; impulsive,  energetic,  firm  and  enduring, 
fitted  to  maintain  a  firm  grasp;  self-adjusted, 
grave,  never  swerving  from  the  mean  and  correct, 
fitted  to  command  reverence;  accomplished,  dis- 
tinctive, concentrativc,  and  searching,  fitted  to 
exercise  discrimination;  all-embracing  is  he,  and 
vast,  deep,  and  active  as  a  fountain,  sending  forth, 
in  their  due  seasons,  his  virtues."  (Doctrine  of 
the  Mean,  c.  xxxi.,  v.  1,2.) 

Confucius  rarely  held  out  any  actual,  earthly 
reward,  external  to  the  man,  for  any  line  of  con- 
duct ;  and  indeed  above  all  other  attitudes  of  mind, 
he  praised  that  which  considered  solely  the  thing 
to  be  done  and  not  the  reward  for  doing  it.  Yet 
as  to  certain  consequences  which  flow  from  fol- 
lowing the  path  of  the  mean,  the  "Doctrine  of 
the  Mean"  was  not  silent,  but  said  of  him  who 
follows  it  consistently:  "Wherever  ships  and 
carriages  reach,  wherever  the  strength  of  man 
penetrates,  wherever  the  heavens  overshadow 
and  the  earth  sustains,  wherever  the  sun  and 
moon  shine,  wherever  frost  and  dew  fall,  all  who 
have  blood  and  breath  unfeignedly  honour  and 
love  him."       (C.  xxxi.,  v.  3.) 

Righteousness.  "Such  deliberation  results  in 
achievement  of  the  ends  of  being." 

These  words  from  "The  Great  Learning" 
(Text,  v.  2)  raise  the  question:  What  is  life's 
object?  Confucius  elsewhere  answers  it:  "Man 
is  born  for  uprightness.     If  a  man  lose  his  up- 


70  The  Superior  Man 

Tightness  and  yet  live,  his  escape  is  the  result  of 
mere  good  fortune."     (Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xvii.) 

Tsang  Tze,  according  to  Mencius,  attributes 
this  also  to  Confucius:  "If  on  self-examination, 
I  find  I  am  not  upright,  shall  I  not  be  in  fear  even 
of  a  poor  man  in  his  loose  garments  of  hair-cloth? 
If  on  self-examination  I  find  that  I  am  upright, 
I  will  go  forward  against  thousands  and  tens  of 
thousands."     (Mencius,  bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  7.) 

It  is  to  this,  also,  that  Confucius  refers  when  he 
says:  "Let  every  man  consider  virtue  as  what 
devolves  upon  himself;  he  may  not  yield  the  per- 
formance of  it  even  to  his  teacher."  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxv.) 

That  it  comes  naturally  and  easily  if  the  purpose 
has  been  rectified  and  the  will  is  clear  and  strong, 
he  says  in  these  words :  "  If  the  will  be  set  on  virtue, 
there  will  be  no  practice  of  wickedness."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  iv.,  c.  iv.) 

The  life  which  is  devoid  of  purity  and  rectitude, 
he  regards  as  thrown  away.  Righteousness  should 
reign  in  men's  hearts  and  in  their  lives.  Its  name 
and  how  desirable  a  thing  it  is  should  be  upon 
their  lips  every  day;  for  of  this  he  speaks  as  fol- 
lows: "When  a  number  of  people  are  together 
for  a  whole  day  without  their  conversation  turn- 
ing on  righteousness,  and  when  they  are  fond  of 
carrying  out  a  narrow  shrewdness,  theirs  is  indeed 
a  hard  case."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xvi.) 

Cunning  shrewdness  he  regarded  as  utterly 
inconsistent  with  rectitude,  saying:  "Who    says 


Self-Development  71 

of  Wei-chang  Kao  that  he  is  upright?  One  begged 
some  vinegar  of  him  and  he  begged  it  of  a  neigh- 
bour and  gave  it  to  him."  (Analects,  bk.  v., 
C.  xxiii.) 

That  righteousness  is  of  the  man  and  not  only 
of  his  deed,  Mencius  thus  affirms:  "Kao  Tze  has 
never  understood  righteousness.  He  makes  it 
a  thing  external."     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  15.) 

The  attainment  of  righteousness  of  thought  and 
conduct,  then,  is  the  aim  of  all  who  wish,  in  con- 
formity with  the  art  of  living,  to  achieve  a  well- 
spent  life.  Perfect  and  complete  rectitude  is,  of 
course,  not  a  sine  qua  non  in  order  that  one  should 
be  a  superior  man;  for  the  word  "superior"  is 
relative.  Confucius  says:  "Superior  men,  and 
yet  not  always  virtuous,  there  have  been,  alas! 
But  there  has  never  been  an  inferior  man  who 
was  at  the  same  time  virtuous."  (Analects,  bk. 
xiv.,  c.  vii.) 

Among  the  descriptions  of  the  superior  man, 
we  find  these  which  bear  upon  the  same  subject; 
for  the  most  part  they  have  already  been  quoted, 
but  it  is  necessary  to  reconsider  them  here:  "The 
superior  man  thinks  of  virtue,  the  ordinary  man 
thinks  of  comfort.  The  superior  man  thinks  of 
sanctions  ot  law,  the  ordinary  man  of  favours." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xi.)  "The  mind  of  the  supe- 
rior man  is  conversant  with  righteousness,  the 
mind  of  the  ordinary  man  is  conversant  with 
gain."  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xvi.)  "The  supe- 
rior man  holds  righteousness  to  be  of  the  highest 


72  The  Superior  Man 

importance."  (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xxiii.)  "The 
superior  man  in  all  things  considers  righteousness 
essential."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xvii.) 

Mencius  thus  identifies  righteousness  as  the 
normal  attribute  of  man:  "Benevolence  is  the 
tranquil  habitation  of  man  and  righteousness  his 
straight  path.  Alas  for  them  who  leave  the 
tranquil  habitation  tenantless  and  dwell  not  therein 
and  who  turn  away  from  the  straight  path  and 
pursue  it  not!"     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  x.,  v.  2,  3.) 

Nine  things,  as  regards  which  one  must  keep 
watch  over  himself,  are  enumerated  by  Confucius 
as  follows:  "The  superior  man  has  nine  things 
which  are  subjects  with  him  of  thoughtful  con- 
sideration. In  regard  to  the  use  of  his  eyes,  he  is 
anxious  to  see  clearly.  In  regard  to  the  use  of  his 
ears,  he  is  anxious  to  hear  distinctly.  In  regard 
to  his  countenance,  he  is  anxious  that  it  should  be 
benign.  In  regard  to  his  demeanour,  he  is  anx- 
ious that  it  should  be  respectful.  In  regard  to 
his  speech,  he  is  anxious  that  it  should  be  sincere. 
In  regard  to  his  doing  of  business,  he  is  anxious 
that  it  should  be  reverently  careful.  In  regard 
to  what  he  doubts  about,  he  is  anxious  to  question 
others.  When  he  is  angry,  he  thinks  of  the  diffi- 
culties his  anger  may  involve  him  in.  When  he 
sees  gain  to  be  got,  he  thinks  of  righteousness." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  ex.) 

Some  of  the  qualities  which  go  to  make  up 
rectitude  of  demeanour  and  conduct  are  recorded 
in  this  passage,  with  appropriate  statements  as 


Self-Development  73 

to  their  advantages:  "If  you  are  grave,  you  will 
not  be  treated  with  disrespect.  If  you  are  gener- 
ous, you  will  win  all.  If  you  are  sincere,  people 
will  repose  trust  in  you.  If  you  are  earnest,  you 
will  accomplish  much.  If  you  are  kind,  this  will 
enable  you  to  employ  the  services  of  others." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  vi.) 

And  in  the  "Li  Ki"  (bk.  vii.,  sect,  ii.,  19),  the 
following  are  given  as  essentials  of  right-living: 
"What  are  the  things  which  men  consider  right? 
Kindness  in  a  father,  filial  piety  in  a  son;  gentle- 
ness in  an  elder  brother,  obedience  in  a  younger; 
righteousness  in  a  husband,  submission  in  a  wife; 
kindness  in  elders,  deference  in  juniors;  benevo- 
lence in  a  ruler,  loyalty  in  a  minister.  These  ten 
are  things  which  men  consider  right.  To  speak 
the  truth  and  work  for  harmony  are  what  are 
called  things  advantageous  to  men.  To  quarrel, 
plunder,  and  murder  are  things  disastrous  to  men." 

The  philosophy,  the  sequence,  even  the  causa- 
tion of  it  are  contained  in  this,  from  the  same  book: 
1 '  He  who  knows  how  to  exemplify  what  a  son  should 
be,  can  afterwards  exemplify  what  a  father  should 
be.  He  who  knows  how  to  exemplify  what  a 
minister  should  be,  can  afterwards  exemplify 
what  a  ruler  should  be.  He  who  knows  how  to 
serve  others,  can  afterwards  employ  them." 
(Bk.  vi.,  sect,  i.,  20.) 

Perhaps  there  are  traces  of  an  ancient  free- 
masonry— or  did  they  merely  presage  the  newer 
symbolism? — in   this,  from   the  "Yi  King"   (ap- 


74  The  Superior  Man 

\ 

pendixiv.,  sect,  ii.,  c.  ii.,  6) :  "The  plumb  signifies 
correctness;  the  square,  righteousness."  There 
are  several  such  passages  in  the  ancient  books  of 
the  Chinese. 

Self-righteousness  is  far  from  what  the  sage 
has  in  mind.  Indeed,  such  a  conception  could  not 
be  harboured  by  him  who  said:  "I  am  fortunate. 
If  I  have  any  faults,  people  are  sure  to  know  them  " 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxx.,  v.  3);  and  again:  "In 
letters  I  am  perhaps  equal  to  other  men,  but  the 
character  of  the  superior  man,  carrying  out  in  his 
conduct  what  he  professes,  is  what  I  have  not  yet 
attained  to."  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxxii.)  As 
the  sage  puts  it:  "To  have  faults  and  not  to  reform 
them,  this  indeed  should  be  pronounced  having 
faults."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxix.) 

He  also  said  concerning  himself:  "If  some  years 
were  added  to  my  life,  I  would  give  fifty  to  the 
study  of  the  Yi,  and  then  I  might  come  to  be 
without  great  faults"  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xvi.); 
and  he  especially  praised  the  selection  by  Keu  Pih- 
yuh  of  a  messenger  who,  when  asked,  "What  is 
your  master  engaged  in?"  replied:  "My  master 
is  anxious  to  make  his  faults  few,  but  has  not  yet 
succeeded."     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxvi.) 

And  the  necessity  for  frequent  introspection 
and  unsparing  criticism  of  self  is  thus  enjoined: 
"Therefore,  the  superior  man  examines  his  heart 
that  there  may  be  nothing  wrong  there,  and  that 
he  may  have  no  cause  for  dissatisfaction  with 
himself."     (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxiii.,  v.  2.) 


Self-Development  75 

That  righteousness  may — and,  indeed,  must, 
in  order  to  be  practicable  by  mortals — coexist 
with  the  presence  of  many  shortcomings  and  may 
even  be  reflected  in  them,  Confucius  indicates 
in  this  shrewd  remark:  "By  observing  a  man's 
faults,  it  may  be  known  that  he  is  virtuous." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  vii.) 

Not  that  one  is  to  hug  this  to  his  soul  in  self- 
justification  and  self-indulgence,  for  it  is  written: 
4 '  Hold  faithfulness  and  sincerity  as  first  principles, 
and  be  moving  continually  toward  what  is  right!" 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  x.,  v.  i.)  He  would  not 
lightly  excuse  or  condone  the  abandonment  of 
virtue ;  for  is  it  not  he  ' '  who  in  the  view  of  gain 
thinks  of  righteousness,"  that  is  pronounced  "a 
complete  man"  ?  (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 
"The  determined  scholar  and  the  man  of  virtue," 
he  also  said,  "will  not  seek  to  live  at  the  expense  of 
injuring  their  virtue.  They  will  even  sacrifice 
their  lives  to  preserve  their  virtue  complete." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  viii.) 

Mencius  also  puts  forth  this  idea  in  another 
dress :  "  I  prize  life  indeed  but  there  is  that  which 
I  prize  more  than  life  and  therefore  I  will  not  seek 
to  preserve  it  by  improper  means.  I  shrink  from 
death  indeed  but  there  is  that  which  I  shrink  from 
more  than  death,  and  therefore  there  are  occasions 
when  I  will  not  avoid  danger."  (Bk.  vi.,  pt.  i., 
c.  x.,  v.  1.) 

Confucius  had  no  notion  of  palliating  the  offence 
of  one  who  abandons  right-doing;  for  he  said  of 


76  The  Superior  Man 

this:  "If  a  superior  man  abandon  virtue,  how  can 
he  fulfil  the  requirements  of  the  name?  The 
superior  man  does  not,  even  for  the  space  of  a 
single  meal,  act  contrary  to  virtue.  In  moments 
of  haste,  he  cleaves  to  it.  In  seasons  of  danger 
he  cleaves  to  it."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  v.  2,  3.) 

And  this  constancy  he  again  adverts  to,  sagely : 
"The  virtuous  rest  in  virtue;  the  wise  desire 
virtue."  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  ii.)  Yet  he  laments: 
' '  I  have  not  seen  a  person  who  loved  virtue,  or  one 
who  hated  what  is  not  virtuous.  He  who  loved 
virtue,  would  esteem  nothing  above  it.  He  who 
hated  what  is  not  virtuous,  would  practise  virtue 
in  such  a  way  that  he  would  not  allow  anything 
that  is  not  virtuous  to  approach  his  person.  Is 
any  one  able  for  one  day  to  apply  his  strength  to 
virtue?  I  have  not  seen  the  case  in  which  his 
strength  would  be  insufficient.  Should  there 
possibly  be  such  a  case,  I  have  not  seen  it." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  vi.) 

Yet  he  despairs  of  constant  righteousness;  for 
he  says  elsewhere :  "  To  subdue  one's  self  and  return 
to  propriety  is  perfect  virtue.  If  a  man  for  one 
day  subdue  himself  and  return  to  propriety,  all 
under  heaven  will  ascribe  perfect  virtue  to  him." 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  i.,  v.  1.)  And  likewise: 
"If  a  man  in  the  morning  hear  the  right  way,  he 
may  die  in  the  evening  without  regret."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  iv.,  c.  viii.) 

Earnestness.  "Wheresoever  you  go,  go  with 
all  your  heart!"     (Shu  King,  pt.  v.,  bk.  ix.,  2.) 


Self-Development  77 

These  words  are  ascribed  to  the  illustrious  Wu 
or  to  Khang,  his  son.  The  injunction  which 
Ibsen  puts  into  the  mouth  of  Brand : 

"  Be  what  thou  art,  with  all  thy  heart — 
Not  piecemeal,  only,  and  in  part!" 

seems  but  a  modern  echo,  or  reaffirmation,  of 
this  sentiment  of  thousands  of  years  ago. 

In  the  "Shu  King,"  also,  I  Yin  is  made  to  say: 
"What  attainment  can  be  made  without  anxious 
thought?  What  achievement  without  earnest 
effort?"     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  vi.,  sect,  iii.,  2.) 

Mencius  puts  it  strongly  thus:  "Now  chess- 
playing  is  but  a  small  art ;  but  without  giving  his 
whole  mind  to  it  and  bending  his  will  to  it,  a 
man  cannot  excel  in  it."     (Bk.  vi.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ix., 

v.  3-) 

The  absolute  sincerity  of  thought  which  has 
been  found  prerequisite  to  the  acquisition  of 
sound  learning,  the  formation  of  right  desires,  and 
the  planning  of  the  art  of  life,  must  ripen  into 
earnestness  in  conduct  and  candour  of  speech. 
Else  were  it  fruitless  and  unavailing.  As  much 
is  embraced  in  this  primary  injunction  of  Con- 
fucius: "Hold  faithfulness  and  sincerity  as  first 
principles!"     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  viii.,  v.  2.) 

Among  the  nine  things  which  are  with  the  supe- 
rior man  subjects  "of  thoughtful  consideration," 
he  includes  these:  "In  regard  to  his  speech,  he  is 
anxious  that  it  be  sincere.     In  regard  to  his  doing 


78  The  Superior  Man 

of  business,  he  is  anxious  that  it  should  be  rever- 
ently careful."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  x.) 

These  resulting  virtues  of  speech  and  action 
were  two  of  the  "four  things  which  the  Master 
taught:  Letters,  ethics,  devotion  of  spirit,  and 
truthfulness."  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxiv.)  And 
urgently  did  he  enjoin  each  of  his  disciples  "to 
give  one's  self  earnestly  to  the  duties  due  to  men." 
(Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xx.) 

That  this  should  come  naturally  and  easily, 
without  strain  or  striving,  Mencius  says  in  this: 
"The  great  man  does  not  think  beforehand  of  his 
words  that  they  may  be  sincere  nor  of  his  actions 
that  they  may  be  resolute ;  he  simply  speaks  and 
does  what  is  right."     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xi.) 

The  opposite  Mencius  finds  in  this:  "The  disease 
of  men  is  this: — that  they  neglect  their  own  fields 
and  go  to  weed  the  fields  of  others  and  that  what 
they  require  from  others  is  great,  while  what  they 
lay  upon  themselves  is  light."  (Bk.  vii.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  xxxii.,  v.  3.) 

The  evil  results  of  uninstructed  earnestness  in 
conduct,  i.  e.,  earnestness  unaccompanied  by  clear 
knowledge  of  what  is  aimed  at,  of  consequences 
and  causes  and  of  the  means  by  which  one's  real 
ends  may  be  furthered,  are  set  forth  in  this: 
"There  is  the  love  of  being  sincere  without  the 
love  of  learning;  the  beclouding  here  leads  to  an 
injurious  disregard  of  consequences."  (Analects, 
bk.  xvii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  3.) 

Notwithstanding  these  obvious  limitations,  none 


Self-Development  79 

of  which  goes  to  the  root  and  all  of  which  have  to 
do  only  with  what  should  accompany  earnestness 
and  candour,  Confucius  enjoins  both,  upon  the 
young  as  upon  the  old,  as  absolutely  essential  to 
right-living.  Thus  of  the  youth,  he  says:  "He 
should  be  earnest  and  truthful"  (Analects,  bk.  i., 
c.  vi.)j  and  of  the  superior  man:  "He  who  aims 
at  complete  virtue  ...  is  earnest  in  what  he  is 
doing  and  careful  in  his  speech."  (Analects, 
bk.  i.,  c.  xiv.)  "The  superior  man  wishes  to  be 
slow  in  speech  and  earnest  in  conduct."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  iv.,  c.  xxiv.)  "What  the  superior  man 
requires,  is  just  that  in  his  words  there  may  be 
nothing  inaccurate."  (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  iii., 
v.  7.) 

Twice  in  the  "Analects,"  although  Confucius 
spoke  seldom  about  "perfect  virtue,"  he  referred, 
when  replying  to  inquiries  on  this  important 
subject,  especially  to  sincerity  of  speech  and  faith- 
fulness of  conduct,  the  first  time  briefly  thus: 
"Fan  Ch'e  asked  about  perfect  virtue.  The 
Master  said,  'It  is  in  retirement,  to  be  sedately 
grave;  in  the  management  of  business,  to  be  rev- 
erently attentive;  in  intercourse  with  others,  to 
be  strictly  sincere.'  "     (Analects,  bk,  xiii.,  c.  xix.) 

The  second  time,  he  did  not  content  himself 
with  mere  categorical  mention,  but  proceeded 
to  expatiate  upon  the  beneficent  results  of  these 
virtues,  in  the  following:  "Tsze-chang  asked  Con- 
fucius about  perfect  virtue.  Confucius  said, 
'To  be  able  to  practise  five  things  everywhere 


80  The  Superior  Man 

under  heaven  constitutes  perfect  virtue.'  He 
begged  to  inquire  what  they  were,  and  was  told: 
'Gravity,  generosity,  sincerity,  earnestness,  and 
kindness.  If  you  are  grave,  you  will  not  be 
treated  with  disrespect.  If  you  are  generous, 
you  will  win  all.  If  you  are  sincere,  people  will 
repose  trust  in  you.  If  you  are  earnest,  you 
will  accomplish  much.  If  you  are  kind,  this  will 
enable  you  to  employ  the  services  of  others.'" 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  vi.) 

These  results,  he  further  taught,  are  independent 
of  time  and  place  and  of  the  state  of  civilization 
of  those  among  whom  these  virtues  are  practised, 
for  he  says:  "Let  his  words  be  sincere  and  truth- 
ful, and  his  actions  honourable  and  careful; — 
such  conduct  may  be  practised  among  the  rude 
tribes  of  the  South  or  of  the  North.  If  his  words 
be  not  sincere  and  truthful,  and  his  actions  not 
honourable  and  careful,  will  he,  with  such  conduct, 
be  appreciated,  even  in  his  own  neighbourhood?" 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  v.,  v.  2.) 

Humility.  "I  am  not  concerned  that  I  have 
no  place;  I  am  concerned  how  I  may  fit  myself 
for  one.  I  am  not  concerned  that  I  am  not  known ; 
I  seek  to  be  worthy  to  be  known."  (Analects, 
bk.  iv.,  c.  xiv.)  "I  will  not  be  afflicted  that  men 
do  not  know  me;  I  will  be  afflicted  that  I  do  not 
know  men."  (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  xvi.)  "I  will 
not  be  concerned  at  men's  not  knowing  me;  I  will 
be  concerned  at  my  own  want  of  ability."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxxii.)     "The  superior  man  is 


Self-Development  81 

distressed  by  his  want  of  ability;  he  is  not  dis- 
tressed by  men's  not  knowing  him."  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  xvii.) 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  expressions  in 
the  "Analects"  of  the  spirit  of  humility  which  is 
essential  to  true  self-development.  It  is  not  want 
of  self-respect  that  is  here  inculcated;  but,  instead, 
that  poise  which  demands  not  the  acclaim  of 
others.  In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  ii.,  sect,  i., 
c.  xxviii.)  it  is  put  thus:  "The  superior  man  .  .  . 
stands  alone  and  has  no  fear,  and  keeps  retired 
from  the  world  without  regret." 

Yet  it  is  also  far  from  encouraging  the  progress- 
destroying  self-sufficiency  of  one  who  disregards 
others'  opinions  because  placing  too  high  an  esti- 
mate upon  his  own.  For  in  the  "Shu  King" 
(pt.  iv.,  bk.  vi.,  4)  the  earnest  injunction  is  found, 
accredited  to  I  Yin:  "Do  not  think  yourself  so 
large  as  to  deem  others  small!" 

And  this,  also,  is  found  in  the  "Shu  King" 
(pt.  iv.,  bk.  ii.,  4):  "He  who  says  that  others  are 
not  equal  to  himself,  comes  to  ruin." 

And  in  the  same  book  (pt.  iv.,  bk.  viii.,  sect,  ii., 
i)  the  illustrious  Yueh  is  reported  to  have  said: 
"Indulging  the  consciousness  of  being  good  is  the 
way  to  lose  that  goodness;  being  vain  of  one's 
ability  is  the  way  to  lose  it." 

And  in  its  pages  also  (pt.  v.,  bk.  xxvi.)  King 
Mu  is  made  to  say  of  himself,  in  all  humility: 
"I  rise  at  midnight  and  think  how  I  can  avoid 
falling  into  errors." 

6 


82  The  Superior  Man 

The  Duke  of  Khin,  also  in  the  "Shu  King" 
(pt.  v.,  bk.  xxx.),  thus  describes  how  difficult, 
albeit  salutary,  it  is  to  receive,  welcome,  and  apply 
the  reproof  of  others:  "Reproving  others  is  easy, 
but  to  receive  reproof  and  allow  it  free  course  is 
difficult." 

And  in  the  "Li  Ki"  (bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  iii.,  17) 
the  ruinous  consequences  of  false  pride  are  depicted 
by  means  of  a  clever  parable,  as  follows:  "It  is 
because  I  would  not  eat  'Poor  man,  come  here!' 
food  that  I  am  come  to  this  state." 

In  the  same  book  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxvii.,  9)  it  is  re- 
lated of  Confucius:  "The  Master  said,  'The  su- 
perior man  exalts  others  and  abases  himself;  he 
gives  the  first  place  to  others  and  takes  the  last 
himself.'" 

Mencius  applied  this  to  himself  in  this  famous 
colloquy:  "The  officer  Ch'oo  said,  'Master,  the 
King  sent  persons  to  spy  out  whether  you  were 
really  different  from  other  men.'  Mencius  said, 
'How  should  I  be  different  from  other  men? 
Yaou  and  Shun  were  the  same  as  other  men.'" 
(Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xxxii.) 

This  also  does  Confucius  teach,  that  with  admi- 
ration and  appreciation  a  man  should  look  upon 
superior  men,  rejoicing  in  their  virtue,  and  emu- 
lating them;  and  that,  on  the  contrary,  when 
beholding  persons  with  grave  and  glaring  faults, 
he  is  not  to  rejoice  that  he  is  not  like  unto  them, 
but  instead,  with  deep  humility,  to  search  his 
own  heart  with  microscopic  care  and  remorseless 


Self-Development  83 

earnestness,  lest  these  very  faults  or  errors  be 
hiding  there.  Thus  he  says:  "When  we  see 
men  of  worth,  we  should  think  of  equalling  them; 
when  we  see  men  of  contrary  character,  we  should 
turn  inward  and  examine  ourselves."  (Analects, 
bk.  iv.,  c.  xvii.) 

The  difficulty  of  doing  this,  however,  he  did  not 
minimize,  knowing  full  well  how  prone  the  human 
mind  is  to  justify  its  own  aberrations.  Indeed 
he  more  than  once  complained  with  sadness:  "I 
have  not  yet  seen  one  who  could  perceive  his 
faults  and  inwardly  accuse  himself."  (Analects, 
bk.  v.,  c.  xxvi.) 

He  counselled  the  greatest  possible  avoidance 
of  the  thought  of  personal  success  as  a  prime  con- 
sideration of  conduct,  and  inculcated  the  truth 
that  unless  the  mind  is  devotedly  bent  to  the 
achievement  of  its  own  purpose,  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  thing  which  it  designs,  the  man's 
work  will  not  be  that  which  he  desired  to  do  but 
will  merely  be  done  in  order  that  men  might 
acclaim  him. 

He  often  emphasized  even  to  a  superlative 
degree  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  formation 
of  character  and  of  living  a  well-spent  and  there- 
fore successful  life.  Indeed,  that  this  should 
ever  come  up  to  one's  longings,  or  even  to  one's 
expectations,  was,  he  frequently  granted,  quite 
impossible,  meaning  thereby  not  that  the  struc- 
ture might  not  be  imposing  or  beautiful,  but  that 
it  would  fall  short  of  that  perfect  beauty  which 


&4  The  Superior  Man 

the  mind  is  able  to  conjure  up  before  it,  and  must 
so  imagine  to  itself  if  the  man  is  to  be  kept  steadily 
on  the  path  of  progress. 

It  is  true  that  in  all  this  there  is  no  departure 
from  the  notion  that  the  man  should  be  in  fact 
self-sufficient.  It  is  not  the  idea  of  the  sage  that 
he  should  abandon  himself  to  despair  but  that  his 
mind,  beholding  clearly  and  courageously  the 
perfection  that  he  cannot  hope  to  equal,  should 
do  all  that  lies  in  its  power  to  mould  itself  after 
that  vision  of  beauty,  which  after  all  is  but  an 
imperfect  attempt  to  reconstruct  within  itself 
the  glories  which  it  cannot  fully  apprehend.  Thus 
he  teaches  that  one  should  be  at  ease  about  him- 
self, even  though  others  should  hold  him  of  no 
account.  This  is  not  meant  by  Confucius  to  be 
mere  self-abasement,  affected  in  order  to  obtain 
an  advantage  in  coping  with  others,  but  a  genuine 
willingness  that  one's  work  be  done  year  in  and 
year  out,  without  being  visited  with  the  acclaim 
of  the  multitude.  He  says:  "Is  he  not  a  man  of 
complete  virtue  who  feels  no  discomposure  though 
men  may  take  no  note  of  him?"  (Analects, 
bk.  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  3.) 

He  thus  pays  his  tribute  of  praise  and  appreci- 
ation to  the  great  soul  who  compasses  this:  "Ad- 
mirable, indeed,  was  the  virtue  of  Hwuy!  With 
a  single  bamboo  dish  of  rice,  a  single  gourd  dish 
of  drink,  and  living  in  his  mean  narrow  lane,  while 
others  could  not  have  endured  the  distress,  he  did 
not  allow  his  joy  to  be  affected  by  it.     Admirable, 


Self-Development  85 

indeed,  was  the  virtue  of  Hwuy!"  (Analects, 
bk.  vi.,  c.  ix.) 

Aspiration.  "The  scholar  does  not  deem  gold 
and  jade  precious,  but  loyalty  and  good  faith. 
He  does  not  crave  broad  lands  and  possessions, 
but  holds  the  rectification  of  himself  his  domain. 
He  asks  not  great  wealth  but  looks  upon  many- 
sided  culture  as  true  riches."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxxviii., 
6.) 

Thus  in  the  "Li  Ki"  Confucius  indicates  that 
for  and  unto  which  man  should  aspire.  It  is 
contrasted  thus  with  the  opposite  and  vainglorious 
but  destructive  course:  "It  is  the  way  of  the  supe- 
rior man  to  prefer  the  concealment  of  his  virtue 
while  it  daily  becomes  more  illustrious,  and  it  is 
the  way  of  the  inferior  man  to  seek  notoriety 
while  he  daily  goes  more  and  more  to  ruin." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxiii.,  v.  I.) 

And  in  this  passage  perhaps  even  more  dis- 
criminatingly and  finely:  "The  thing  wherein  the 
superior  man  cannot  be  equalled  is  simply  this, 
his  work  which  other  men  cannot  see."  (Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxiii.,  v.  2.) 

Of  the  path  which  leads  to  this  and  which 
Confucius  trod,  it  is  said  in  this  from  the  "Doc- 
trine of  the  Mean,"  already  once  quoted:  "It 
waits  for  the  proper  man,  and  then  it  is  trodden. 
Hence  it  is  said,  'Only  by  perfect  virtue  can  the 
perfect  path  in  all  its  courses  be  realized. '  There- 
fore the  superior  man  honours  his  virtuous  nature 
and  maintains  constant  inquiry  and  study,  seek- 


86  The  Superior  Man 

ing  to  carry  it  out  to  its  breadth  and  greatness  so 
as  to  omit  none  of  the  most  exquisite  and  minute 
points  which  it  embraces  and  to  raise  it  to  its 
greatest  height  and  brilliancy,  so  as  to  pursue  the 
course  of  the  mean."     (C.  xxvii.,  v.  4,  5,  6.) 

This  is  the  portrait,  considered  by  Chinese 
scholars  to  be  that  of  Confucius,  which  in  a  pas- 
sage from  the  same  book,  already  once  quoted, 
presents  the  many-sided  character  to  which  men, 
striving  for  the  right,  are  to  aspire :  "  It  is  only  he 
possessed  of  all  sagely  qualities  that  can  exist 
under  Heaven,  who  shows  himself  quick  in  appre- 
hension, clear  in  discernment,  of  far-reaching 
intelligence  and  all-embracing  knowledge,  fitted 
to  exercise  rule;  magnanimous,  generous,  benign, 
and  mild,  fitted  to  exercise  forbearance ;  impulsive, 
energetic,  firm,  and  enduring,  fitted  to  maintain  a 
firm  grasp;  self-adjusted,  grave,  never  swerving 
from  the  mean  and  correct,  fitted  to  command  rev- 
erence; accomplished,  distinctive,  concentrative, 
and  searching,  fitted  to  exercise  discrimination. 
All  embracing  is  he,  and  vast,  deep,  and  active  as 
a  fountain,  sending  forth  in  their  due  seasons  his 
virtues."     (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxi.,  v.  1,2.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  in  more  prosaic  but  not  less 
striking  fashion,  the  aspirations  which  are  justi- 
fiable, honourable,  and  beneficial  for  a  man  are 
detailed,  thus:  "There  are  three  things  that  occa- 
sion sorrow  to  a  superior  man.  If  there  be  a  sub- 
ject of  which  he  has  not  heard,  and  he  do  not  hear 
of  it;  if  he  hear  of  it,  and  do  not  some  to  learn  it; 


Self-Development  87 

if  he  learn  it  but  have  no  chance  to  practise  it. 
There  are  five  things  that  occasion  the  superior 
man  humiliation.  If  in  office  and  unfamiliar  with 
its  duties;  if  familiar  with  them  but  not  carrying 
them  into  practice;  if  once  in  office  and  then  dis- 
missed; if  in  charge  of  a  large  territory  but  not 
well  populated ;  if  anybody  with  the  same  duties 
do  better  than  he."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xviii.,  20.) 

In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  iii.,  sect,  ii., 
c-  v->  37).  Confucius  sharply  contrasts  this  with 
the  sordid,  self-destroying  motives  of  the  inferior 
man,  thus:  "The  inferior  man  is  not  ashamed  of 
what  is  not  benevolent  nor  does  he  fear  to  do  what 
is  not  righteous.  Without  the  prospect  of  gain 
he  does  not  stimulate  himself  to  what  is  good,  nor 
does  he  correct  himself  without  being  moved." 

The  attitude  which  should  be  taken  toward  these 
incentives,  usually  so  powerful,  the  sage  thus  pre- 
sents: "Riches  and  honours  are  what  men  desire. 
If  it  cannot  be  brought  about  in  the  proper  way, 
they  should  not  be  held.  Poverty  and  meanness 
are  what  men  dislike.  If  it  cannot  be  brought 
about  in  the  proper  way,  they  should  not  be 
avoided."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  v.,  v.  1.) 

Yet  Confucius  deemed  it  self-evidently  a  desir- 
able thing  that  one's  merit  should  be  recognized 
and  a  thing  almost  incredible  that  true  merit  should 
go  unrecognized.  But  he  urged  that  this  should 
be  regarded  as  but  an  incident  and  not  as  the 
object  to  be  aimed  at  and  striven  for.  Instead, 
the  labour  must  be  primarily  to  serve  one's  fellow- 


88  The  Superior  Man 

man  and  to  develop  one's  self.  Notoriety  and 
genuine  distinction  he  discussed  in  the  following: 
"The  Master  said,  'What  is  it  you  call  being  dis- 
tinguished?' Tsze-chang  replied,  'It  is  to  be 
heard  of  through  the  state,  to  be  heard  of  through 
the  family. '  The  Master  said :  '  That  is  notoriety, 
not  distinction.  The  man  of  distinction  is  sub- 
stantial and  straightforward  and  loves  upright- 
ness. He  examines  people's  words  and  looks  into 
their  countenances.  He  is  anxious  to  defer  to 
others.  Such  a  man  will  be  distinguished  in  the 
country;  he  will  be  distinguished  in  the  family. 
As  to  the  man  of  notoriety,  he  assumes  the  appear- 
ance of  virtue  but  his  actions  belie  it,  and  he  rests 
in  this  character  without  any  doubts  about  him- 
self. Such  a  man  will  be  heard  of  in  the  country ; 
he  will  be  heard  of  in  the  family.'"  (Analects, 
bk.  xii.,  c.  xx.) 

There  is  one  sort  of  aspiration  for  fame  which 
Confucius  said  that  he  himself  did  not  possess: 
"To  live  in  obscurity  and  to  practise  wonders, 
in  order  to  be  mentioned  with  honour  in  future 
ages — this  is  what  I  do  not  do."  (Doctrine  of 
the  Mean,  c.  xi.,  v.  I.) 

Yet  it  is  by  no  means  his  opinion  that  only 
they  who  by  their  virtues  deserve  to  be  known  or 
even  to  be  loved,  receive  the  acclaim  of  the  multi- 
tude. This  but  raises  the  question  whether  the 
man  is  really  worthy  or  has  merely  deceived  and 
misled  the  people.  Confucius  says  that  it  but 
puts  one  upon  inquiry,  thus:  "When  the  multi- 


Self-Development  89 

tude  hate  a  man,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  into 
the  case.  When  the  multitude  like  a  man,  it  is 
necessary  to  examine  into  the  case."  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  xxvii.) 

This  he  explains  more  fully  at  another  time  in 
the  following  colloquy:  "Tsze-kung  asked,  saying, 
'What  do  you  say  of  a  man  who  is  loved  by  all 
the  people  of  his  village?'  The  Master  replied, 
'We  may  not  for  that  accord  our  approval  of 
him.'  'And  what  do  you  say  of  him  who  is 
hated  by  all  the  people  of  his  village?'  The 
Master  said,  'We  may  not  for  that  conclude  that 
he  is  bad.  It  is  better  than  either  of  these  cases 
that  the  good  in  the  village  love  him,  and  the 
bad  hate  him.'  "     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxiv.) 

Confucius  could  not  enough  condemn  the  doing 
of  any  act  for  the  mere  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
approval  of  men  or  of  winning  the  laurels  of  fame. 
The  aim  must  be  the  accomplishment  of  the  work 
or  service,  itself.  This  he  has  said  in  many 
passages,  among  them  these:  "If  doing  what  is  to 
be  done  be  made  the  first  business  and  success  a 
secondary  consideration,  is  not  this  the  way  to 
exalt  virtue?  "  (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxi.,  v.  3.) 
"In  ancient  times  men  learned  with  a  view  to 
their  own  improvement.  Nowadays,  men  learn 
with  a  view  to  the  approbation  of  others."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxv.)  "The  man  of  virtue  makes 
the  difficulty  to  be  overcome  his  first  business  and 
success  only  a  subsequent  consideration."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  vi.,  c.  xx.) 


90  The  Superior  Man 

The  true  spirit  of  the  man  with  an  exalted  aim 
he  thus  depicts:  "Though  he  may  be  all  unknown, 
unregarded  by  the  world,  he  feels  no  regret." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xi.,  v.  3.) 

In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  iv.,  sect,  i.,  c.  ii., 
6)  Confucius  recurs  to  it  thus:  "He  occupies  a 
high  position  without  pride  and  a  low  position 
without  anxiety." 

And  in  the  "Li  Ki"  with  greater  circumstan- 
tiality the  indifference  and  unconcern  of  the  supe- 
rior man  toward  mere  worldly  rewards  or  failure 
to  obtain  them,  and  his  complete  immunity  from 
evil  result  of  either  of  these  things,  are  thus  por- 
trayed: "The  scholar  is  not  cast  down  or  uprooted 
by  poverty  and  a  mean  condition ;  he  is  not  elated 
or  enervated  by  riches  and  an  exalted  condition." 
(Bk.  xxxviii.,  19.) 

Yet,  not  utterly  is  ambition  for  worldly  honours 
discouraged ;  for  in  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  in 
a  passage  already  once  quoted,  and  which  Chinese 
scholars  deem  to  refer  to  Confucius  himself,  the 
prospect  of  the  man  who  pursues  the  path  of  the 
mean  is  thus  apostrophized:  "  Wherever  ships  and 
carriages  reach,  wherever  the  strength  of  man 
penetrates,  wherever  the  heavens  overshadow 
and  the  earth  sustains,  wherever  the  sun  and  moon 
shine,  wherever  frosts  and  dews  fall,  all  who  have 
blood  and  breath  unfeignedly  honour  and  love 
him."     (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxi.,  v.  3.) 

And,  although  the  words,  "I  desire  nothing 
but  rightly  to  die,"  are  ascribed  to  Tsang-tse, 


Self-Development  91 

when  dying  (Li  Ki,  bk.  ii.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  18), 
Confucius  himself  has  said:  "The  superior  man 
dislikes  the  thought  of  his  name  not  being  men- 
tioned after  his  death."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xix.) 

Prudence.  "If  a  man  take  no  thought  about 
what  is  distant,  he  will  find  sorrow  near  at  hand." 
(Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xi.) 

In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  iii.,  sect.  ii.f  c.  v., 
39),  the  wisdom  of  prudence  and  of  foresight, 
thus  vividly  presented  in  the  "Analects,"  is  en- 
forced by  the  Master  in  these  maxims:  "He  who 
keeps  danger  in  mind,  is  he  who  will  rest  safe  in 
his  seat;  he  who  keeps  ruin  in  mind,  is  he  who  will 
preserve  his  interests  secure;  he  who  sets  the  dan- 
ger of  disorder  before  him,  is  he  who  will  maintain 
order." 

And  in  the  "Shu  King"  Yueh  is  represented 
as  urging  thoughtful  care,  by  these  words:  "For 
all  affairs  let  there  be  adequate  preparation; 
with  preparation  there  will  be  no  calamitous  issue." 
(Pt.  iv.,  bk.  viii.,  sect,  ii.,  I.) 

Of  the  same  nature  is  this  injunction  from  the 
"Li  Ki"  (bk.  xv.,  22):  "Do  not  commence  or 
abandon  anything  hastily." 

Though  far  from  teaching  that  the  aim  of  the 
superior  man  should  be  the  acquisition  of  wealth, 
and  though  insistent  upon  the  view  that  this  de- 
pends so  much  more  upon  fortune  than  upon  the 
desert,  or  even  the  scheming,  of  individuals, 
Confucius,  as  in  the  foregoing,  pleads  always  for 
the  use  of  foresight  and  prudence  in  the  ordinary 


92  The  Superior  Man 

affairs  of  life.  Thus  he  places  among  the  cardinal 
qualities  of  the  superior  man  reverent  attention 
to  business.  (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  x.)  Yet  he 
rarely  discoursed  upon  this  subject  nor,  indeed, 
upon  the  part  of  Heaven  in  determining  the  good 
or  ill  fortune  which  attends  man;  and  that  this 
is  not  true  only  of  the  sayings  which  have  come 
down  to  us,  is  shown  by  this  statement  of  his 
disciples:  "The  subjects  of  which  the  Master 
seldom  spoke  were:  profitableness,  also  the  ap- 
pointments of  Heaven  and  perfect  virtue."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  ix.,  c.  i.) 

That  the  sordid  pursuit  of  wealth  is  to  be  avoided 
he  indicated  in  these  words  already  quoted: 
"Riches  and  honour  are  what  men  desire.  If  it 
cannot  be  brought  about  in  the  proper  way,  they 
should  not  be  held.  Poverty  and  meanness  are 
what  men  dislike.  If  it  cannot  be  brought  about 
in  the  proper  way,  they  should  not  be  avoided." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  v.,  v.  I.) 

This  he  also  said  again  and  again,  as  in  this 
contrast:  "The  mind  of  the  superior  man  is  con- 
versant with  righteousness;  the  mind  of  the  aver- 
age man  is  conversant  with  gain"  (Analects, 
bk.  iv.,  c.  xvi.) ;  and  in  another  place  he  names  as 
one  of  the  qualities  of  "the  complete  man"  that, 
"in  view  of  gain,"  he  "thinks  of  righteousness." 
(Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

He  teaches  that  "riches  and  honours  depend 
upon  Heaven"  (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  v.,  v.  3); 
notwithstanding  which,   prudence    and   industry 


Self-Development  93 

will,  in  a  well-governed  country,  insure  a  compe- 
tence. Wherefore  he  says:  "When  a  country  is 
well  governed,  poverty  and  a  mean  condition  are 
things  to  be  ashamed  of.  When  a  country  is  ill 
governed,  riches  and  honour  are  things  to  be 
ashamed  of."     (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  3.) 

To  nothing  would  his  proverb,  "To  go  beyond 
is  as  bad  as  to  fall  short"  (Analects,  bk.  xi.,  c.  xiv., 
v.  3),  apply  more  aptly  than  to  expenditure,  of 
which  he  also  sagely  remarks  (Analects,  bk.  vii., 
c.  xxxv.) :  "Extravagance  leads  to  insubordina- 
tion and  parsimony  to  meanness.  It  is  better  to 
be  mean  than  to  be  insubordinate" — though, 
obviously,  best  of  all  to  be  neither. 

As  regards  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  Confucius 
spoke,  for  himself,  thus:  "If  the  search  for  riches 
were  sure  to  be  successful,  though  I  should  become 
a  groom  with  whip  in  hand  to  get  them,  I  would 
do  so.  As  the  search  may  not  be  successful,  I 
will  pursue  that  which  I  desire."  (Analects, 
bk.  vii.,  c.  xi.) 

Resignation  to  the  appointments  of  Heaven  in 
this  regard,  and  the  greater  desirability  that  more 
worthy  ambitions  be  dominant,  are  urged  in  this 
striking  passage :  "There  is  Hwuy !  He  has  nearly 
attained  to  perfect  virtue.  He  is  often  in  want." 
(Analects,  bk.  xi.,  c.  xviii.) 

That  riches  is  not  that  to  which  the  soul  of  the 
superior  man  aspires,  he  affirms  in  these  words, 
already  quoted  in  another  connection:  "The  supe- 
rior man  is  anxious  lest  he  should  not  get   truth; 


94  The  Superior  Man 

he  is  not  anxious  lest  poverty  should  come  upon 
him."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxi.) 

This  version  of  "Riches  takes  unto  itself  wings" 
is  given  by  the  commentator  in  "The  Great 
Learning":  "Wealth,  got  by  improper  means, 
will  take  its  departure  in  the  same  way."  (C.  x., 
v.  10.) 

Among  the  "three  things  which  the  superior 
man  guards  against,"  he  names  avarice,  saying: 
"In  youth,  when  the  physical  powers  are  not  yet 
settled,  he  guards  against  lust.  When  he  is  strong, 
and  the  physical  powers  are  full  of  vigour,  he 
guards  against  quarrelsomeness.  When  he  is  old, 
and  the  animal  powers  are  decayed,  he  guards 
against  covetousness."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  vii.) 

Though  duties,  corresponding  to  their  ill  for- 
tune or  good  fortune,  rest  upon  the  poor  and  upon 
the  rich,  Confucius  deems  it  much  harder  for  the 
impoverished  man  to  possess  his  soul  and  act 
according  to  propriety;  of  this  he  says:  "To  be 
poor  without  murmuring  is  difficult.  To  be  rich 
without  pride  is  easy."     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xi.) 

The  imprudence,  not  to  speak  of  the  immorality, 
of  acting  in  a  purely  selfish  manner,  is  shown  in 
this:  "He  who  acts  with  a  constant  view  to  his 
own  advantage  will  be  much  murmured  against." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xii.) 

This,  however,  is  not  limited  to  financial  dealings, 
but  applies  as  well  to  all  other  exactions;  as  to 
which  the  sage  shrewdly  observes:  "He  who  re- 
quires much  from  himself  and  little  from  others, 


Self-Development  95 

will  keep  himself  from  being  the  object  of  resent- 
ment."    (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xiv.) 

It  is  also  the  part  of  prudence  as  early  as  pos- 
sible to  guard  against  speech  and  conduct  which 
cause  dislike;  for,  as  the  sage  somewhat  sweep- 
ingly  asserts:  "When  a  man  at  forty  is  the  object 
of  dislike,  he  will  always  continue  what  he  is." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xxvi.) 

The  same  idea,  but  a  different  application  of  it, 
is  presented  in  this  wise  saying  from  the  "Shu 
King"  (pt.  v.,  bk.  xxi.,  2)  attributed  to  King 
Khang :  "  Seek  not  every  quality  in  one  individual ! " 

And  this  vivid  picture  of  the  foredoomed  failure 
of  the  ambitious  but  imprudent  man  Confucius 
gives  in  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  iii.,  sect,  ii., 
c.  v.,  v.  40) :  "Virtue  small  and  office  high;  wisdom 
small  and  plans  great;  strength  small  and  burden 
heavy — where  such  conditions  exist,  it  is  seldom 
they  do  not  end  in  evil." 

The  necessity  for  unflinching  self-examination 
before  engaging  in  any  important  undertaking 
or  assuming  any  heavy  obligation,  not  merely  as 
a  matter  of  personal  honesty,  but  also  as  a  matter 
of  prudence,  is  thus  enjoined  in  the  "Li  Ki"  in 
a  passage  already  quoted:  "For  one  who  wished  to 
serve  his  ruler,  the  rule  was  first  to  measure  his 
abilities  and  duties  and  then  enter  on  the  respon- 
sibilities; he  did  not  first  enter  and  then  measure. 
The  same  rule  applied  when  one  begged  or  bor- 
rowed from  others  or  sought  to  enter  their  service." 
(Bk.  xv.,  19.) 


96  The  Superior  Man 

And  in  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  ii.,  c.  xxxiii., 
v.  4)  this  caution  and  this  self-restraint  are  thus 
appreciated:  "A  superior  man  retires,  notwith- 
standing his  likings ;  an  average  man  cannot  attain 
to  it." 

This  sketch  of  the  superior  man  is  elaborated 
further  in  the  following  passage  in  the  "Analects" : 
"He  who  aims  to  be  a  man  of  complete  virtue,  in 
his  food  does  not  seek  to  gratify  his  appetite,  nor 
in  his  dwelling-place  does  he  seek  the  appliances 
of  ease;  he  is  earnest  in  what  he  is  doing,  and 
careful  in  his  speech ;  he  frequents  the  company  of 
men  of  principle  that  he  may  be  rectified."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  i.,  c.  xiv.) 

Prudence  is,  of  course,  merely  the  application 
of  the  same  calm  clear-sightedness  and  study  of 
cause  and  effect,  which  the  sage  enjoins  as  the 
very  foundation  of  the  investigation  of  phenomena, 
upon  which  in  turn  the  entire  superstructure  of 
the  art  of  life  rests.  To  what  advantage  does  one 
refuse  to  recognize  the  stubborn  facts,  whether 
as  regards  himself  or  as  regards  others?  Or  as 
the  sage  phrases  it:  "Who  can  go  out  but  by  the 
door?  How  is  it  that  men  will  not  walk  according 
to  these  ways?"     (Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xv.) 

The  need  of  patience  and  thoroughness  he  also 
repeatedly  inculcates,  as  in  this:  "Do  not  be  de- 
sirous of  having  things  done  quickly;  do  not  look 
at  small  advantages!  Desire  to  have  things  done 
quickly  prevents  their  being  done  thoroughly. 
Looking    at    small    advantages    prevents    great 


"Self-Development  97 

things  being  accomplished."     (Analects,  bk.  xiii., 
c.  xvii.) 

And  the  slow  but  solid  achievement  which 
attends  this  course  is  thus  portrayed:  "The  way 
of  the  superior  man  may  be  compared  with  what 
takes  place  in  travelling,  when  to  go  to  a  distance 
we  must  first  traverse  the  space  that  is  near  and 
when  in  ascending  a  height  we  must  first  begin 
from  the  lower  ground."  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
c.  xv.,  v.  I.) 

7 


CHAPTER  III 

GENERAL  HUMAN   RELATIONS 

After  instruction  in  self -development,  men 
need  to  know  their  relation  to  their  fellows. 
First  in  importance  of  our  social  duties,  and  inti- 
mately connected  with  individual  character,  Con- 
fucius placed  propriety. 

The  Rules  of  Propriety.  "Let  the  superior 
man  never  fail  reverentially  to  order  his  own  con- 
duct ;  and  let  him  be  respectful  to  others  and  ob- 
servant of  propriety.  Then  all  within  the  four 
seas  will  be  his  brothers."  (Analects,  bk.  xii., 
c.  v.,  v.  4.) 

Thus  Confucius  in  the  "Analects"  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  the  due  observance  of  propri- 
ety. The  rules  of  propriety  were,  in  the  mind  of 
the  sage,  of  much  the  same  order  as  the  positive 
commands  which  make  up  the  ordinary  man's 
only  system  of  morality.  They  were  the  things 
enjoined,  which  the  superior  man  must  observe, 
not  in  order  to  become  or  even  to  be  a  superior 
man,  however,  but  because  he  is  such.  There- 
fore it  is  said:  "If  a  man  be  without  the  vir- 
tues proper   to   humanity,  what   has   he   to   do 

98 


General  Human  Relations  99 

with  the  rites  of  propriety?"  (Analects,  bk. 
iii.,  c.  iii.) 

Yet  propriety  has  its  office,  also,  and  that 
not  a  small  one,  albeit  the  real  character,  the 
open  mind,  sincerity,  purity  of  purpose,  will, 
courage,  poise,  and  all  the  rest,  must  first  have 
been  attained;  else  mere  outward  conformity 
with  propriety  is  nothing.  Its  office  is  thus 
described:  "It  is  by  the  rules  of  propriety  that 
the  character  is  established."  (Analects,  bk.  viii., 
c.  viii.,  v.  2.)  "Without  an  acquaintance  with 
the  rules  of  propriety,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
character  to  be  established."  (Analects,  bk.  xx., 
c.  iii.,  v.  3.) 

This  is  indeed  sufficiently  obvious  upon  con- 
sideration since  character  can  be  evinced  only  in 
speech,  conduct,  deportment,  and  demeanour,  each 
of  which  must  have  its  own  canons  of  propriety. 
The  utility  of  these  rules  in  this  respect  is 
adverted  to  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  thus:  "The  rules  of 
propriety  serve  as  instruments  to  form  men's 
characters.  .  .  .  They  remove  from  a  man  all 
perversity  and  increase  what  is  beautiful  in  his 
nature.  They  make  him  correct,  when  employed 
in  the  ordering  of  himself;  they  ensure  for  him 
free  course,  when  employed  toward  others." 
(Bk.  viii.,  sect,  i.,  1.) 

In  another  place  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  following 
is  said  concerning  the  depraved  state  of  men  who 
have  no  conception  of  propriety:  "But  if  beasts 
and  without  the  rules  of  propriety,  father  and  son 


ioo  The  Superior  Man 

might  have  the  same  mate."     (Bk.  i.,   sect,   i., 
pt.  i.,  c.  v.,  v.  21.) 

And  in  yet  another  place  in  that  book  the  fol- 
lowing tribute  to  the  superlative  utility  of  pro- 
priety and  especially  to  its  usefulness  in  forming 
character  appears:  "Therefore  the  rules  of  pro- 
priety are  for  man  what  the  yeast  is  for  liquor. 
By  the  use  of  them  the  superior  man  becomes 
better  and  greater.  The  inferior  man  by  neglect 
of  them  becomes  smaller  and  poorer.  (Bk.  vii., 
sect,  iv.,  v.  7.) 

Mencius  thus  laid  bare  the  very  foundation  for 
the  sense  of  propriety:  "The  sense  of  shame  is  of 
great  importance  to  man."  (Bk.  vii.,  pt.  i., 
c.  vii.,  v.  1.) 

The  Chinese  tradition  was  that  the  rules  of 
propriety  had  been  established  by  the  ancient 
kings  and  embodied  their  conception  of  right. 
The  following  account,  also  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  which 
is  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  these  rules,  is  given, 
both  of  their  origin  and  of  their  construction: 
"The  rules  as  instituted  by  the  ancient  kings  had 
their  radical  element  and  their  outward,  elegant 
form.  A  true  heart  and  good  faith  are  their 
radical  element.  The  characteristics  of  each  ac- 
cording to  the  idea  of  what  is  right  in  it  are  its 
outward,  elegant  form.  Without  the  radical 
element,  they  could  not  have  been  established; 
without  the  elegant  form,  they  could  not  have 
been  put  in  practice."     (Bk.  viii.,  sect,  i.,  v.  2.) 

That  an  observance  is  to  be  judged,  not  only 


General  Human  Relations         101 

by  its  general  acceptance  as  "good  form,"  but 
also  and,  if  need  be,  exclusively  by  what  is  right, 
is  urged  in  this  passage  from  the  same  book: 
"Rules  of  ceremony  are  the  embodied  expression 
of  what  is  right.  If  an  observance  stand  the 
test  of  being  judged  by  the  standard  of  what  is 
right,  although  it  may  not  have  been  among  the 
usages  of  the  ancient  kings,  it  may  be  adopted 
on  the  ground  of  its  being  right."  (Bk.  vii., 
sect,  iv.,  v.  9.) 

Mencius  thus  rebuked  the  notion,  yet  prevalent 
in  more  than  one  quarter,  that  mere  "good  form" 
is  propriety  although  it  be  the  cover  for  wanton 
cruelty  and  wrong:  "Acts  of  propriety  which 
are  not  proper  and  deeds  of  righteousness  that 
are  not  righteous,  the  great  man  does  not  do." 
(Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  vi.) 

The  untoward  consequences,  if  the  rights  of 
propriety  are  neglected,  are  strikingly  set  forth 
by  Confucius  in  these  words:  "Respectfulness, 
without  the  rules  of  propriety,  becomes  laborious 
bustle;  carefulness,  without  the  rules  of  propriety, 
becomes  timidity;  boldness,  without  the  rules  of 
propriety,  becomes  insubordination;  straightfor- 
wardness, without  the  rules  of  propriety,  becomes 
rudeness."     (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  1.) 

Several  of  the  nine  things  which  he  names  as 
worthy  "of  thoughtful  consideration"  are  of  this 
nature.  The  pronouncement,  already  once  quoted, 
will  bear  repetition:  "The  superior  man  has  nine 
things  which  are  subjects  with  him  of  thoughtful 


102  The  Superior  Man 

consideration:  In  regard  to  the  use  of  his  eyes  he 
is  anxious  to  see  clearly.  In  regard  to  the  use  of 
his  ears  he  is  anxious  to  hear  distinctly.  In  re- 
gard to  his  countenance  he  is  anxious  that  it 
should  be  benign.  In  regard  to  his  demeanour 
he  is  anxious  that  it  should  be  respectful.  In 
regard  to  his  speech  he  is  anxious  that  it  should 
be  sincere.  In- regard  to  his  doing  of  business  he 
is  anxious  that  it  should  be  reverently  careful. 
In  regard  to  what  he  doubts  about  he  is  anxious 
to  question  others.  When  he  is  angry  he  thinks 
of  the  difficulties  his  anger  may  involve  him  in. 
When  he  sees  gain  to  be  got  he  thinks  of  right- 
eousness."    (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  x.) 

In  another  place  he  says:  "If  you  are  grave, 
you  will  not  be  treated  with  disrespect;  if  you  are 
generous,  you  will  win  all;  if  you  are  sincere,  peo- 
ple will  repose  trust  in  you;  if  you  are  in  earnest, 
you  will  accomplish  much;  if  you  are  kind,  this 
will  enable  you  to  employ  the  services  of  others." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  vi.) 

Each  of  these  has  reference  to  a  rule  of 
propriety. 

Again,  when  asked  what  constitutes  perfect 
virtue,  he  said:  "It  is  in  retirement  to  be  sedately 
grave,  in  the  management  of  business  to  be  rever- 
ently attentive,  in  intercourse  with  others  to  be 
strictly  sincere."     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xix.) 

Among  the  repulsive  characters  which  he  holds 
it  the  duty  of  the  superior  man  to  hate,  is  this: 
' '  lie  hates  those  who  have  valour  merely  and  are 


General  Human  Relations         103 

unobservant  of  propriety."  (Analects,  bk.  xvii., 
c.  xxiv.,  v.  1.) 

Perhaps  in  nothing  are  the  real  qualities  of  a 
man  more  frankly  exhibited  than  in  his  conduct 
toward  those  who  are  subject  to  his  orders  and 
must  obey  him.  The  petty  tyrannies  which  the 
small  mind  invents  under  such  conditions  are 
familiar  to  every  observer,  but  few  have  had  the 
penetration  to  discern  what  Confucius  illustrates 
in  the  following  passage:  "The  superior  man  is  easy 
to  serve  and  difficult  to  please.  If  you  try  to 
please  him  in  any  way  which  is  not  accordant  with 
right,  he  will  not  be  pleased.  But  in  his  employ- 
ment of  men  he  uses  them  according  to  their 
capacity.  The  inferior  man  is  difficult  to  serve, 
and  easy  to  please.  If  you  try  to  please  him, 
though  it  be  in  a  way  which  is  not  accordant  with 
right,  he  may  be  pleased.  But  in  his  employment 
of  men  he  wishes  them  to  be  equal  to  everything." 
(Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxv.) 

This  is  but  a  shrewd  practical  application  of  this 
observation  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "Propriety  is  seen 
in  humbling  one's  self  and  giving  honours  to 
others."     (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vi.,  v.  25.) 

But  this  humility  must  be  such  as  comports 
with  true  dignity ;  for,  as  the  Duke  of  Shao  says  in 
the  "Shu  King"  (pt.  v.,  bk.  vi.,  2):  "Complete 
virtue  allows  no  contemptuous  familiarity." 

This  combination  of  humility  and  dignity, 
which  has  ever  characterized  the  Chinese  concep- 
tion of  propriety,  is  cleverly  adverted  to  in  these 


104  The  Superior  Man 

significant  and  weighty  sentences:  "Gan  P'ing 
Chung  knew  well  how  to  maintain  friendly  inter- 
course. The  acquaintance  might  be  long,  but 
he  showed  the  same  respect  as  at  first."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  v.,  c.  xvi.) 

This  combination  of  humility  and  dignity  is 
yet  more  pointedly  and  convincingly  outlined 
in  this  pithy  sentence:  "Condemning  none,  court- 
ing none,  what  can  he  do  that  is  not  good?" 
(Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xxvi.,  v.  2.) 

Though  Confucius  was  so  insistent  that  his 
disciples  should  learn  and  practise  the  refinements 
of  polite  behaviour,  he  held  the  balance  even,  and 
at  all  times  urged  the  greater  importance  of  the 
real  things  of  character.  Complete  sanity  is  in 
these  discerning  sentences:  "Where  the  solid 
qualities  are  in  excess  of  the  accomplishments, 
we  have  rusticity;  where  the  accomplishments 
are  in  excess  of  the  solid  qualities,  we  have  the 
manners  of  a  clerk;  when  the  accomplishments 
and  solid  qualities  are  equally  blended,  we  then 
have  the  man  of  complete  virtue."  (Analects, 
bk.  vi.,  c.  xvi.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  urgent  need  that  one  give 
reverent  attention  to  propriety  is  thus  phrased: 
"The  superior  man  watches  over  the  manner  in 
which  he  maintains  his  intercourse  with  other 
men."     (Bk.  viii.,  sect,  ii.,  v.  14.) 

It  is,  however,  not  desirable  that  over-emphasis 
be  laid  upon  unimportant  details ;  for  as  Tsze-hea 
says  in  the  "Analects":  "When  a  person  does  not 


General  Human  Relations         105 

transgress  the  boundary-line  of  the  great  virtues, 
he  may  pass  and  repass  it  in  the  small  virtues." 
(Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  xi.) 

There  is,  notwithstanding,  something  near  to 
vehemence  in  this  urgent  adjuration  that  pro- 
priety is  on  no  account  to  be  neglected  either  in 
passive  or  in  active  moments:  "Look  not  at  what 
is  contrary  to  propriety;  listen  not  to  what  is 
contrary  to  propriety;  speak  not  what  is  contrary 
to  propriety ;  make  no  movement  which  is  contrary 
to  propriety!"     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  i.,  v.  2.) 

This  glowing  picture  of  what  the  superior  man, 
conversant  with  propriety  and  following  its  rules 
with  discernment,  sympathy,  and  enthusiasm,  may 
become,  already  quoted  from  the  "Doctrine  of 
the  Mean,"  is  so  illuminating  in  this  connection 
that  it  is  here  repeated:  "The  superior  man  does 
what  is  proper  to  the  station  in  which  he  is ;  he 
does  not  desire  to  go  beyond  this.  In  a  position 
of  wealth  and  honour  he  does  what  is  proper  to 
a  position  of  wealth  and  honour ;  in  a  poor  and  low 
position,  he  does  what  is  proper  to  a  poor  and 
low  position ;  situated  among  barbarous  tribes  he 
does  what  is  proper  to  a  situation  among  barbarous 
tribes;  in  a  position  of  sorrow  and  difficulty,  he 
does  what  is  proper  to  a  position  of  sorrow  and 
difficulty. 

"The  superior  man  can  find  himself  in  no  position 
in  which  he  is  not  himself.  In  a  high  situation 
he  does  not  treat  with  contempt  his  inferiors,  in  a 
low  situation  he  does  not  court  the  favour  of  his 


106  The  Superior  Man 

superiors ;  he  rectifies  himself,  and  seeks  for  nothing 
from  others,  so  that  he  has  no  dissatisfaction." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xiv.) 

The  influence  and  the  value  of  such  a  man  to 
his  community  he  thus  rates,  when  told  that  the 
tribes  of  the  East,  with  whom  he  purposes  to  live, 
are  rude:  "If  a  superior  man  lived  among  them, 
what  rudeness  would  there  be?"  (Analects,  bk. 
ix.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

Propriety  of  Demeanour.  "Always  and  in 
everything  let  there  be  reverence,  with  the  de- 
meanour grave  as  when  one  is  thinking  deeply 
and  with  speech  composed  and  definite."  (Li  Ki, 
bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  i.)  "If  the  heart  be  for  a 
moment  without  the  feeling  of  harmony  and  joy, 
meanness  and  deceitfulness  enter  it.  If  the  out- 
ward demeanour  be  for  a  moment  without  gravity 
and  reverence,  indifference  and  rudeness  show 
themselves."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  8.) 

These  two  passages  from  the  "Li  Ki"  illustrate 
the  high  estimate  which  the  Chinese  justly  placed 
upon  the  value  of  grave  demeanour.  The  idea 
is  that  between  two  superior  men  there  is  a  com- 
munion of  souls  and  a  commerce  one  with  another 
which  results  inevitably  from  virtuous  purposes, 
high  resolves,  and  the  reflection  of  these  in  the 
attitude  of  one  toward  the  other.  This  associa- 
tion the  superior  man  values  not  merely  for  the 
opportunities  for  benevolence  and  influence  which 
it  affords,  but  also  for  that  which  it  means  for 
himself  as  well. 


General  Human  Relations         107 

It  was  not  for  nothing  that  the  Greek  poets 
located  the  gods  aloof  from  one  another  on  the 
peaks  of  mountains,  silent  for  the  most  part  though 
in  communion  each  with  the  others,  and  breaking 
the  silence  only  when  concerns  of  great  import 
called  for  expression. 

It  is  something  like  this  which  Confucius  sets 
before  the  superior  man,  as  the  ideal.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  he  strongly  affirms  that  the  su- 
perior man  should  be  grave  and  serious.  Of  this 
he  says:  "If  the  scholar  be  not  grave,  he  will  not 
call  forth  veneration,  and  his  learning  will  not  be 
solid."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  viii.) 

By  manners,  it  is  almost  needless  to  say,  he  did 
not  mean  anything  at  all  similar  to  the  mere  gloss 
of  one  who  is  conversant  with  the  rules  of  social 
behaviour,  and  who  adroitly  manipulates  them 
to  please  this  person  or  vent  his  spite  on  that ;  for 
one  of  his  aptest  texts  runs:  "Fine  words  and  an 
insinuating  appearance  are  seldom  associated 
with  true  virtue."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  iii.) 

Mencius  thus  illustrates  the  reward  for  frank 
demeanour  and  the  sure  detection  of  the  contrary : 
"Of  all  the  parts  of  a  man's  body  there  is  none 
more  excellent  than  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  The 
pupil  cannot  hide  a  man's  wickedness.  If  within 
the  breast  all  be  correct,  the  pupil  is  bright.  If 
within  the  breast  all  be  not  correct,  the  pupil  is 
dull.  Listen  to  a  man's  words  and  look  at  the 
pupil  of  his  eye.  How  can  a  man  conceal  his 
character?"     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xv.) 


108  The  Superior  Man 

This  concerning  the  demeanour  of  Confucius 
is  related  in  the  "Analects":  "The  Master  was 
mild  but  dignified;  commanding  but  not  fierce; 
respectful  but  easy."  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c. 
xxxvii.) 

Tsze-hea  in  the  "Analects"  thus  depicts  the 
demeanour  of  the  superior  man :  ' '  Looked  at  from 
a  distance,  he  appears  stern;  when  approached, 
he  is  mild ;  when  he  is  heard  to  speak,  his  language 
is  firm  and  decided."     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  ix.) 

In  another  place  Confucius  contrasts  the  poise 
of  the  superior  man  with  the  pose  of  the  man  with 
low  ideals,  the  one  dignified  without  being  con- 
scious of  it,  the  other  constantly  striving  to  show 
that  control  over  himself  and  confidence  in  him- 
self which  he  really  does  not  possess.  But  the 
idea  is  better  apprehended  from  the  sage's  own 
words:  "The  superior  man  has  dignified  ease 
without  pride ;  the  ordinary  man  has  pride  without 
dignified  ease."     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxvi.) 

Propriety  of  Deportment.  "It  is  virtuous  man- 
ners which  constitute  the  excellence  of  a  neighbour- 
hood. If  a  man  in  selecting  a  residence  do  not 
fix  upon  one  where  such  prevail,  how  can  he  be 
wise?"     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  i.) 

These  words  of  the  sage,  taken  from  the  "Ana- 
lects," are  characteristic.  Confucius  is  more 
frequently  accused  of  paying  too  much  attention 
to  propriety  in  manners  than  too  little.  Undoubt- 
edly, he  did  place  great  stress  both  upon  ceremo- 
nies and  upon  manners,  but  more  upon  the  spirit 


General  Human  Relations         109 

that  should  inform  them.  How  significant  the 
ceremonies  may  have  been  in  view  of  the  tradi- 
tions and  customs  of  the  people,  it  is  impossible 
for  men  of  this  age  living  in  Western  countries  to 
divine.  But  the  canons  of  good  manners  which 
Confucius  set  up,  although  subjected  to  most 
critical  examination,  are  found  to  be  universal  in 
scope  and  quite  as  valid  today  and  in  Western 
countries  as  in  his  day  and  in  the  East. 

How  universal  and  permanent  they  are,  may 
be  seen  from  this,  taken  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "Do 
not  listen  with  head  inclined  on  one  side  nor 
answer  with  a  loud,  sharp  voice,  nor  look  with  a 
dissolute  leer  nor  keep  the  body  in  a  slouching 
position.  Do  not  saunter  about  with  a  haughty 
gait  nor  stand  with  one  foot  raised.  Do  not  sit 
with  your  knees  wide  apart  nor  lie  face  down." 
(Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  hi.,  c.  iv.) 

This  from  the  same  book  is  so  advanced  that 
even  in  these  modern  days  men  in  civilized  Occi- 
dental countries  have  barely  commenced  to  ap- 
prehend it:  "When  he  intends  to  go  to  an  inn, 
let  it  not  be  with  the  feeling  that  he  must  have 
whatever  he  asks  for!"  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  v.,  v.  2,  3.) 

Undoubtedly  he  attached  great  importance  to 
manners,  in  part  because  his  whole  system  was 
one  of  breeding.  It  was  his  notion  that  a  man 
should  care  about  himself  and  therefore  that  his 
behaviour  should  comport  with  his  real  dignity 
and  his  sense  of  dignity. 


no  The  Superior  Man 

One  who  so  earnestly  urged  the  necessity  for  ab- 
solute sincerity  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  praise 
that  social  polish  which  is  both  an  affectation 
and  a  lie.  He  draws,  indeed,  a  sharp  distinction 
between  the  superior  man,  who  is  approachable 
and  far  from  distant  in  manner  but  avoids  flat- 
tery, and  the  man  who  behaves  with  hauteur, 
intended  to  wound  and  embarrass,  toward  all  but 
those  into  whose  favour  he  would  ingratiate  him- 
self. He  places  them  thus  in  contrast :  "The  supe- 
rior man  is  affable  but  not  adulatory;  the  inferior 
man  is  adulatory  but  not  affable."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxiii.) 

That  by  propriety  in  deportment  is  not  meant 
subserviency,  Confucius  shows  by  his  reply,  when 
asked  by  his  disciple,  Tsze-loo,  how  a  sovereign 
should  be  served:  "Do  not  impose  upon  him,  and 
moreover  withstand  him  to  his  face."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxiii.)  This  counsel,  it  is  worth  re- 
marking, was  given  by  one  who  was  the  instructor 
of  princes. 

How  minute,  accurate,  and  well-taken  were  the 
rules  of  behaviour  which  he  laid  down  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  following  passages  from  the 
"Li  Ki":  "In  all  cases,  looks  directed  up  into  the 
face  denote  pride,  below  the  girdle  grief,  askance 
villainy."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  iii.,  c.  vii.)  "When 
a  thing  is  carried  with  both  hands,  it  should  be 
held  on  a  level  with  the  heart ;  when  with  one  hand, 
on  a  level  with  the  girdle."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  ii., 
pt.  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  i.)     "When  sitting  by  a  person  of 


General  Human  Relations        in 

rank,  if  he  begin  to  yawn  and  stretch  himself,  to 
turn  round  his  tablet,  to  play  with  the  head  of  his 
sword,  to  move  his  shoes  about,  or  to  ask  about 
the  time  of  day,  one  may  ask  leave  to  retire." 
(Bk.  xv.,  18.) 

From  a  volume  upon  human  conduct  which 
betrays  so  fine  and  discriminating  penetration, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  we  may  cull  so  choice  an 
expression  of  good  taste  as  this:  "For  great  en- 
tertainments there  should  be  ...  no  great  dis- 
play of  wealth."     (Bk.  i.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  iii.,  c.  ix.) 

This  acute  perception  of  the  most  delicate  dis- 
tinctions was  evidenced  no  more  strongly,  perhaps, 
in  any  of  the  marvellous  sentences  which  have 
come  down  to  this  generation  than  in  the  following : 
"Of  all  people,  girls  and  servants  are  the  most 
difficult  to  behave  to.  If  you  are  familiar  with 
them,  they  lose  their  humility;  if  you  maintain 
a  reserve  toward  them,  they  are  discontented." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xxv.) 

That  youth,  or  rather  childhood,  is  the  period 
when  development  of  character  and  therefore  of 
deportment  should  commence,  is  ever  in  his 
thought.  That  the  son  should  admire  and  imitate 
his  father,  and  the  father  should  make  of  himself 
a  human  being  whom  the  son,  without  surrendering 
his  power  to  see  things  as  they  are,  might  admire 
and  imitate,  was  fundamental  in  the  Confucian 
conception  of  the  art  of  living. 

Whatever  indicated  the  contrary  of  admiration 
and  respect  of  a  son  for  his  father  was  to  him  as 


ii2  The  Superior  Man 

to  all  right-minded  men  offensive  and  disgusting. 
He  characterizes  such  a  boy:  "In  youth  not  hum- 
ble as  befits  a  junior  "  (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xlvi.), 
and  later  excoriates  him  in  the  following  burning 
sentences:  "I  observe  that  he  is  fond  of  occupying 
the  seat  of  a  full-grown  man.  I  observe  that  he 
walks  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  his  elders.  He  is 
not  one  who  is  seeking  to  make  progress  in  learning. 
He  wishes  quickly  to  become  a  man."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiv.,  c.  xlvii.,  v.  2.) 

That  this  might  be  avoided  and  that  the  man- 
ner as  well  as  the  purposes  of  the  son  might  be 
directed  into  other  and  better  channels,  one  of  his 
disciples  placed  this  requirement  upon  the  father, 
whose  parenthood  vests  him  with  responsibility  for 
the  manners  of  his  offspring:  "I  have  also  heard 
that  the  superior  man  maintains  a  distant  reserve 
toward  his  son."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  5.) 

Not  one  of  the  foregoing  is  inapplicable  to  the 
regrettable  incivility  of  children  in  this  buoyant 
but  inconsiderate  age;  and  surely  no  others  are 
so  sorely  needed  in  these  days  of  flippant  disrespect 
for  elders  as  these  trenchant  exposures  of  the 
inherent  badness  of  the  manners  of  Oriental  youths 
of  olden  times. 

It  remained  for  Mencius  to  lay  down  the  fol- 
lowing obviously  correct  rule  for  the  association 
of  friends:  "Friendship  should  be  maintained 
without  condescension  on  the  ground  of  age, 
station,  or  family.  Friendship  with  a  man  is 
friendship  with  his  virtue  and  does  not  admit  of 


General  Human  Relations        113 

assumptions  of  superiority."  (Bk.  v.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  hi.,  v.  1.) 

The  views  of  the  sage  as  to  what  constitutes 
the  true  spirit  of  polite  deportment  seem  always 
to  square  with  the  maturest  judgment  of  the  most 
recent  authorities.  What  trained  gentleman  of 
any  school  will  fail  to  recognize,  with  a  thrill  of 
satisfaction,  this  expression  of  the  fundamentally 
correct  notion  of  sportsmanship,  observable  ac- 
cording to  his  disciples  in  the  conduct  of  Confucius 
himself:  "The  Master  angled,  but  did  not  use  a 
net;  he  shot,  but  not  at  birds  perching."  (Ana- 
lects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxvi.) 

Propriety  of  Speech.  "They  who  meet  men 
with  smartness  of  speech,  for  the  most  part  procure 
themselves  hatred."    (Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  iv.,  v.  2.) 

That  one  should  be  most  circumspect  about 
his  speech,  Tsze-kung  enforces,  also  in  the  "Ana- 
lects," by  saying:  "For  one  word  a  man  is  often 
deemed  to  be  wise  and  for  one  word  he  is  often 
deemed  to  be  foolish."     (Bk.  xix.,  c.  xxv.,  v.  2.) 

And  especially  that  he  should  be  cautious  about 
making  rash  promises,  Confucius  thus  enjoins: 
"He  who  speaks  without  modesty,  will  find  it 
hard  to  make  his  words  good."  (Analects,  bk. 
xiv.,  c.  xxi.) 

The  same  idea  is  more  fully  and  explicitly 
developed  in  this  passage  of  the  "Li  Ki":  "The 
Master  said :  '  Dislike  and  reprisals  will  attend 
him  whose  promises  from  the  lips  do  not  ripen  into 
fulfilment.      Therefore   the  superior  man  incurs 

8 


ii4  The  Superior  Man 

rather  the  resentment  due  to  refusal  than  the 
charge  of  breaking  his  promise. ' "     (Bk.  xxix.,  49.) 

The  need  for  caution  in  giving  commands  is 
urged  in  these  apt  words  from  the  "Shu  King" 
(pt.  v.,  bk.  xx.,  4):  "Be  careful  in  the  commands 
you  issue;  for,  once  issued,  they  must  be  carried 
into  effect  and  cannot  be  retracted."  And  yet 
more  generally,  emphatically,  and  powerfully 
the  reason  for  caution  in  speech  in  this  striking 
passage  of  the  "Shi  King,"  already  quoted  in 
another  connection:  "A  flaw  in  a  mace  of  white 
jade  may  be  ground  away,  but  a  word  spoken 
amiss  cannot  be  mended."  (Major  Odes,  dec- 
ade iii.,  ode  2.) 

The  limits  of  proper  admonition  of  a  friend  and 
the  reasons  therefor,  Confucius  also  indicates 
thus:  "Faithfully  admonish  your  friend  and  try 
to  lead  him  kindly.  If  you  find  him  impracticable, 
stop;  do  not  disgrace  yourself!"  (Analects,  bk. 
xii.,  c.  xxiii.) 

This  proverb  furnishes  yet  another  reason  for 
great  moderation  in  that  respect:  "Those  whose 
courses  are  different  cannot  lay  plans  for  one 
another."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxix.) 

This  also,  which  the  "Analects"  puts  into  the 
mouth  of  a  madman,  fixes  the  limits  both  of  re- 
proof and  of  the  utility  of  reference  to  the  past: 
"As  to  the  past,  reproof  is  useless,  but  the  future 
may  be  provided  against."     (Bk.  xviii.,  c.  v.,  v.  1.) 

Confucius  dwells  upon  the  same  idea  in  another 
place:  "Things  that  are  done,  it  is  needless  to 


General  Human  Relations        115 

speak  about;  things  that  have  had  their  course, 
it  is  needless  to  remonstrate  about;  things  that 
are  past,  it  is  needless  to  blame."  (Analects, 
bk.  iii.,  c.  xxi.,  v.  2.) 

That  one  must  watch  carefully,  lest  he  be  mis- 
led by  fair  words,  the  sage  shows,  referring  to  his 
own  experience:  "At  first,  my  way  with  men  was 
to  hear  their  words  and  give  them  credit  for  their 
conduct.  Now  my  way  is  to  hear  their  words  and 
look  at  their  conduct."  (Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  ix., 
v.  2.) 

Simplicity  and  directness  of  discourse  are  com- 
mended in  all  that  Confucius  says  of  sincerity  of 
thought,  candour  of  speech,  and  earnestness  of  con- 
duct; but  he  rarely,  if  ever,  put  it  better  than  in 
the  following  (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  xl.) :  "In  lan- 
guage it  is  sufficient  that  it  convey  the  meaning" 
— i.  e.,  the  precise  meaning,  not  something  other 
than  what  seems  to  be  said  or  variant  from  it. 
To  this,  also,  the  sage  refers,  though  to  the  part 
of  the  listener,  rather  than  that  of  the  speaker, 
when  he  says:  "Without  knowing  the  force  of 
words,  it  is  impossible  to  know  men."  (Analects, 
bk.  xx.,  c.  iii.,  v.  3.)  That  is,  one  must  accurately 
understand  what  a  man  says,  though  it  is,  of  course, 
necessary  to  look  beneath  the  mere  words  in  many 
cases  in  order  to  discover  the  true  character  of  the 
man.  To  this,  also,  the  sage  gives  expression 
thus:  "The  virtuous  will  be  sure  to  speak  aright; 
but  not  all  whose  speech  is  good  are  virtuous." 
(Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  v.) 


n6  The  Superior  Man 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  this  is  said  of  the  superior  men 
of  old:  "They  did  not  peer  into  privacies  nor  form 
intimacies  in  matters  aside  from  their  proper 
business.  They  did  not  speak  of  old  affairs  nor 
wear  an  appearance  of  being  in  sport."     (Bk.  xv., 

20.) 

And  the  urgent  reasons  for  care  in  speaking  of 
important  matters  are  thus  presented  in  the  "Yi 
King"  (appendix  iii.,  sect,  i.,  c.  viii.,  47):  "If  im- 
portant matters  in  the  germ  be  not  kept  secret, 
that  will  be  injurious  to  their  accomplishment. 
Therefore  the  superior  man  is  careful  to  maintain 
secrecy  and  does  not  allow  himself  to  speak." 

Regarding  candour  it  was  well  said,  not  alone 
of  worldly  success,  but  yet  more  of  self-develop- 
ment: "I  know  not  how  a  man  without  truthful- 
ness is  to  get  on."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xxii.) 

The  craven  character  of  deceit  he  often  indicated 
and  strongly  condemned,  as  in  these  pregnant  sen- 
tences: "Fine  words,  an  insinuating  appearance, 
and  excessive  respect ;  Tso-k'ew  Ming  was  ashamed 
of  them.  I  also  am  ashamed  of  them.  To  conceal 
resentment  against  a  person  and  appear  friendly 
with  him;  Tso-k'ew  Ming  was  ashamed  of  such 
conduct.  I  also  am  ashamed  of  it."  (Analects, 
bk.  v.,  c.  xxiv.) 

The  contempt  with  which  such  conduct  is  to 
be  regarded,  is  thus  described  in  the  "Li  Ki": 
"The  Master  said,  'The  superior  man  does  not 
merely  look  benign  as  if,  while  cold  at  heart,  he 
could  feign  affection.     That  is  of  the  inferior  man 


General  Human  Relations         117 

and  stamps  him  as  no  better  than  the  sneak  thief.' " 
(Bk.  xxix.,  50.) 

However  covert  such  dissimulation  may  be, 
Confucius  finds  it  equally  reprehensible  and  de- 
grading. Thus,  again  in  the  "  Li  Ki "  it  is  written : 
"The  Master  said,  'When  on  light  grounds  a  man 
breaks  off  his  friendship  with  the  poor,  and  only 
on  weighty  grounds  with  the  rich  and  influential, 
his  love  of  merit  must  be  small  and  his  contempt 
for  meanness  is  not  seen.'         (Bk.  xxx.,  21.) 

And  in  the  same  book  the  more  elusive  hypocrisy 
of  decrying  what  a  man  himself  indulges  in,  is 
discovered  and  condemned,  thus:  "To  disapprove 
of  the  conduct  of  another  and  yet  to  do  the  same 
himself,  is  contrary  to  the  rule  of  instruction." 
(Bk.  xxii.,  12.) 

Here  is  yet  another  unflattering  picture,  taken 
from  the  "Analects,"  of  the  unhappy  and  most 
undesirable  state  of  the  dissembler  who  is  keeping 
up  appearances:  "Having  not  and  yet  affecting 
to  have,  empty  and  yet  affecting  to  be  full,  strait- 
ened and  yet  affecting  to  be  at  ease,  it  is  difficult 
with  such  characteristics  to  have  constancy." 
(Bk.  vii.,  c.  xxv.,  v.  3.) 

And  here  a  picture  of  yet  another  type  of  man, 
going  about  deceiving  himself,  rather  than  others, 
because  what  he  is  shows  through:  "Ardent  and 
yet  not  upright;  stupid  and  yet  not  attentive; 
simple  and  yet  not  sincere:  such  persons  I  do  not 
understand."     (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xvi.) 

That  such  dissimulation  must  ever  be  unsuccess- 


n8  The  Superior  Man 

ful  in  the  end,  Confucius  asserted  in  many  places, 
in  no  other  perhaps  more  persuasively  than  in 
this:  "See  what  a  man  does!  Mark  his  motives! 
Examine  in  what  things  he  rests !  How  can  a  man 
conceal  his  character?"     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  x.) 

Or  in  this  from  "The  Great  Learning"  (c.  vi., 
v.  2) :  "There  is  no  evil  to  which  the  inferior  man, 
dwelling  retired,  will  not  proceed;  but  when  he  sees 
a  superior  man,  he  instantly  tries  to  disguise  him- 
self, concealing  his  evil  and  displaying  what  is 
good.  The  other  beholds  him,  as  if  he  saw  his 
heart  and  reins;  of  what  use  is  his  disguise?  This 
is  an  instance  of  that  saying,  '  What  truly  is  within 
will  be  manifested  without.'  " 

That  without  being  continually  on  his  guard  and 
therefore  constantly  the  slave  of  suspicion,  the 
superior  man,  with  his  own  mind  open  and  sin- 
cere, should  readily  detect  the  attempt  to  delude 
him,  however  cleverly  designed  and  executed, 
Confucius  advanced  as  follows:  "He  who  does 
not  anticipate  attempts  to  deceive  him,  nor  think 
beforehand  of  his  not  being  believed,  and  yet 
apprehends  these  things  readily  when  they  occur, 
is  he  not  a  man  of  superior  worth?"  (Analects, 
bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxxiii.) 

That  the  chief  peril  is  to  him  who  would  deceive 
others,  that  is,  that  he  will  himself  deceive,  Con- 
fucius says  in  this:  "Specious  words  confound 
virtue."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxvi.) 

Precisely  as  in  all  else,  none  the  less,  it  is  in 
earnestness  and  candour  possible  to  go  to  excess; 


General  Human  Relations         119 

in  this  as  in  everything,  to  go  too  far  is  as  bad 
as  to  fall  short.  Thus  there  are  hidden  things  of 
life,  intimate  relations,  tender  ties,  too  private 
and  sacred  to  be  talked  of.  Of  such,  it  is  said: 
"I  hate  those  who  make  secrets  known  and  think 
that  they  are  straightforward."  (Analects,  bk. 
xvii.,  c.  xxiv.) 

Candour  may  thus  degenerate  into  indiscreet 
chattering.  Obviously,  when  directed  at  the 
faults  of  others,  it  may  also  become  incivility, 
unless  tempered  by  considerate  good-will  and 
training  in  deportment.  They,  for  instance, 
who  would  push  their  requirements  as  to  frank- 
ness to  a  prohibition  of  the  polite  evasion,  "Air. 
So-and-so  is  not  at  home,"  will  find  little  encour- 
agement in  the  following  revelations  as  to  the 
ancient  custom  upon  similar  occasions,  with  which 
Confucius  complied,  as  with  all  other  ceremonies, 
such  constituting  a  language  of  their  own:  "Joo 
Pei  wished  to  see  Confucius,  but  Confucius  de- 
clined to  see  him  on  the  ground  of  being  ill.  When 
the  bearer  of  this  message  went  out  at  the  door, 
he  took  the  harpsichord  and  sang  to  it,  in  order 
that  Pei  might  hear  him."  (Analects,  bk.  xvii. 
c.  xx.) 

Mencius  thus  characterizes  both  the  impro- 
priety and  the  in  judiciousness  of  over-candour: 
"What  future  misery  do  they  have  and  ought 
they  to  have,  who  talk  of  what  is  not  good  in 
others!"     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ix.) 

Confucius  puts  this  in  two  ways,  each  illustra- 


120  The  Superior  Man 

tive  of  something  which  is  wanting  when  such 
takes  place:  "There  is  the  love  of  straightfor- 
wardness without  the  love  of  learning;  the  be- 
clouding here  leads  to  rudeness."  (Analects, 
bk.  xvii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  3.)  "Straightforwardness, 
without  the  rules  of  propriety,  becomes  rudeness." 
(Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  I.) 

Propriety  of  Conduct.  "What  I  do  not  wish 
men  to  do  to  me,  I  also  wish  not  to  do  to  men." 
(Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  xi.) 

This  text  from  the  "Analects"  of  Confucius 
is  more  widely  known  among  English-speaking 
people  than  is  any  other;  and  is  very  generally 
understood  to  be  a  merely  colourless,  negative 
phase  of  the  Golden  Rule. 

But  even  in  the  days  of  Confucius  it  had  de- 
veloped into  a  standard  for  human  conduct,  broad 
and  of  general  application.  Thus,  when  Tsze- 
kung  asked,  "Is  there  any  one  word  which  may 
serve  as  a  rule  of  practice  for  all  one's  life?"  the 
Master  replied:  "Is  not  'Reciprocity'  such  a 
word?  What  you  do  not  want  done  to  yourself, 
do  not  do  to  others!"  (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c. 
xxiii.) 

This  is  far  indeed  from  being  all  that  Confucius 
says  upon  the  subject ;  for  in  "The  Great  Learning" 
(c.  x.,  v.  10)  is  found  this  extended  and  thorough 
exposition  of  his  views:  "What  a  man  dislikes  in 
those  who  are  over  him,  let  him  not  display  to- 
ward those  who  are  under  him ;  what  he  dislikes 
in  those  who  are  under  him,  let  him  not  display 


General  Human  Relations         121 

toward  those  who  are  over  him!  What  he  hates 
in  those  who  are  ahead  of  him,  let  him  not  there- 
with precede  those  who  are  behind  him ;  and  what 
he  hates  in  those  who  are  behind  him,  let  him  not 
therewith  pursue  those  who  are  ahead  of  him! 
What  he  hates  to  receive  upon  the  right,  let  him 
not  bestow  upon  the  left;  and  what  he  hates  to 
receive  upon  the  left,  let  him  not  bestow  upon  the 
right!  This  is  called  the  standard,  by  which,  as 
by  a  measuring  square,  to  regulate  one's  conduct." 

Confucius,  indeed,  put  the  performance  of  the 
duties  due  to  one's  fellowman  above  all  other 
duties,  except  that  of  self -development,  with 
which  he  found  it  to  be  in  no  way  inconsistent. 
Thus  he  placed  it  far  above  the  duty  of  ancestor 
communion — miscalled  "worship"  by  Occidentals 
— then  as  now  the  prevailing  religious  ceremony 
in  China,  in  a  memorable  colloquy  with  one  of  his 
disciples:  "Ke  Loo  asked  about  serving  the  spirits 
of  the  dead.  The  Master  said :  '  While  you  are  not 
able  to  serve  men,  how  can  you  serve  spirits?' 
(Analects,  bk.  xi.,  c.  xi.) 

The  same,  in  a  slightly  different  form,  he  re- 
peated at  another  time,  saying:  "To  give  one's 
self  earnestly  to  the  duties  due  to  men,  and,  while 
respecting  spiritual  beings,  to  keep  aloof  from 
them,  may  be  called  wisdom."  (Analects,  bk.  vi., 
c.  xx.) 

The  philosophy  of  human  service  and  of  duty 
to  others,  as  a  necessary  means  of  self-develop- 
ment, was  surely  never  better  expressed  than  in 


122  The  Superior  Man 

these  words:  "Now  the  man  of  perfect  virtue, 
wishing  to  be  confirmed  himself,  confirms  others; 
wishing  to  be  enlarged  himself,  enlarges  others." 
(Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xxviii.,  v.  2.) 

The  contrast  between  this  obviously  correct 
rule  of  human  conduct  and  the  unedifying  specta- 
cle of  the  brutal  struggle  for  success  which  marks 
and  mars  the  picture  of  modern  business  and  social 
life,  renders  this  moral  enlightenment  of  the  highest 
importance  to  men  of  the  here  and  now.  Con- 
fucius phrases  it,  however,  even  more  beautifully 
and  with  added  meaning,  thus:  "The  superior 
man  seeks  to  develop  the  admirable  qualities  of 
men  and  does  not  seek  to  develop  their  evil  quali- 
ties. The  inferior  man  does  the  opposite  of  this." 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xvi.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  Tsang-tsze  is  represented  as 
saying  with  his  failing  breath,  when  death  had 
come  upon  him:  "The  superior  man  loves  on 
grounds  of  virtue;  the  inferior  man's  love  appears 
in  his  indulgence."     (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  18.) 

Mencius  indicates,  however,  the  limitations  of 
this,  namely,  that  one  should  not  be  urging  that 
excellence  of  conduct  upon  others  which  he  indul- 
gently neglects  himself:  "The  evil  of  men  is 
that  they  like  to  be  teachers  of  others."  (Bk.  iv., 
pt.  i.,  c.  xxiii.) 

The  discriminating  and  judicial  character  of  the 
superior  man's  respect  and  regard  for  others  is 
well  put  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  thus:  "Men  of  talents 
and  virtue  can  be  familiar  with  others  and  yet 


General  Human  Relations         123 

respect  them;  can  stand  in  awe  of  others  and 
yet  love  them.  They  can  love  others  and  yet 
recognize  the  evil  that  is  in  them."  (Bk.  i.,  sect, 
i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii.) 

And  Confucius  has  said  in  the  "Analects": 
"Pih-e  and  Shuh-ts'e  did  not  keep  the  former 
wickedness  of  men  in  mind,  and  hence  the  resent- 
ments directed  towards  them  were  few."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  v.,  c.  xxii.) 

The  same  sentiment  of  broad  charity  the  sage 
displays  in  this  declaration  of  his  own  personal 
policy:  "If  a  man  purify  himself  to  wait  upon  me, 
I  receive  him,  so  purified,  without  endorsing  his 
past  conduct."     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxviii.,  v.  2.) 

Confucius  did  not,  however,  concur  in  the  view 
that  charity  should  be  so  all-embracing  as  utterly 
to  lose  sight  of  distinctions  between  men.  On  the 
contrary  he  sturdily  reprobated  that  notion.  He 
often  urged  the  recognition  of  the  special  ties  of 
kinship  and  of  friendship,  as  thus  in  the  "Li  Ki": 
"I  have  heard  that  relatives  should  not  forget 
their  relationship  nor  friends  their  friendship." 
(Bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  iii.,  24.) 

And  in  the  "Yi  King"  (Appendix  iii.,  sect,  i., 
c.  viii.,  v.  43)  appears  this  beautiful  tribute  to 
friendship  by  Confucius: 

"This  in  public  office  toils; 
That  at  home  the  time  beguiles; 
One  his  lips  with  silence  seals, 
One  his  inmost  soul  reveals. 


124  The  Superior  Man 

But  when  two  are  one  at  heart, 
Bolts  will  not  keep  them  apart; 
Words  they  in  communion  use 
Orchids'  fragrances  diffuse." 

In  the  time  of  Confucius,  the  religious  teacher, 
Lao  Tsze,  was  laying  the  foundations  of  Taoism, 
the  most  widely  resorted  to  of  all  the  forms  of 
worship  of  Chinese  origin  other  than  reverence  for 
and  communion  with  departed  ancestors.  Lao 
Tsze  urged  the  validity  of  the  rule  of  conduct: 
"Love  thine  enemies!"  Inquiry  was  made  of 
Confucius  regarding  this,  resulting  in  the  following 
dialogue:  "Some  one  said,  'What  do  you  say  con- 
cerning the  principle  that  injury  should  be  recom- 
pensed with  kindness?'  The  Master  said:  'With 
what  then  will  you  recompense  kindness?  Recom- 
pense injury  with  justice  and  recompense  kindness 
with  kindness!  '  "     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxxvi.) 

Confucius  also  went  much  further  than  this; 
for  he  taught  that  there  is  a  duty  to  hate  men  who 
evince  certain  evil  traits  of  character,  wherever 
found,  and  that  this  duty  is  as  binding  as  the 
other.  He  says  (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  iii.):  "It  is 
only  the  truly  virtuous  man  who  can  love,  or  who 
can  hate,  others,"  by  which  it  is  understood  that 
he  who  is  not  of  virtuous  purpose  loves  only  in 
order  that  he  may  selfishly  enjoy,  and  hates  on 
personal  grounds;  while  the  virtuous  man  loves 
because  he  finds  that  which  should  be  loved,  and 
in  order  to  bless,  and  also  hates  that  which  is 


General  Human  Relations        125 

worthy  of  hate  and  not  because  of  any  personal 
offence. 

In  the  following  colloquy  are  a  few  specimens 
of  the  courses  of  conduct  which  one  is  privileged 
to  hate,  as  Confucius  sees  it : 

"Tsze-kung  said,  'Has  the  superior  man  his 
hatreds  also?'  The  Master  said:  'He  has  his 
hatreds.  He  hates  those  who  proclaim  evil  in 
others.  He  hates  the  man  who,  being  of  a  low 
station,  slanders  his  superiors.  He  hates  those 
who  have  valour  merely  and  are  unobservant  of 
the  rules  of  propriety.  He  hates  those  who  arc- 
forward  and  determined  and,  at  the  same  time, 
of  contracted  understanding. ' 

"The  Master  then  inquired,  'Tsze,  have  you 
also  your  hatreds?'  Tsze-kung  replied:  'I  hate 
those  who  pry  out  matters  and  ascribe  the  know- 
ledge to  their  wisdom.  I  hate  those  who  are  only 
not  modest  and  think  that  they  are  brave.  I 
hate  those  who  reveal  secrets  and  think  that  they 
are  straightforward.'  "  (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c. 
xxiv.) 

In  another  place,  he  has  said :  "  I  hate  those  who 
with  their  sharp  tongues  overthrow  kingdoms  and 
families."     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xviii.) 

Yet  Confucius  said  that  a  youth  "should  over- 
flow with  love  for  all."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  vi.) 

The  policy,  even  the  necessity,  for  this  course 
is  thus  indicated  in  the  "Shu  King":  "To  evoke 
love,  one  must  love;  to  evoke  respect,  one  must 
respect."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  iv.,  2.) 


126  The  Superior  Man 

And  Confucius  was  so  far  from  intending  that 
what  he  said  of  hatred  for  the  wrong-doer  should 
be  interpreted  as  merely  rancorous  dislike  of  an 
unfortunate  human  being,  the  victim  of  evil 
influences,  that,  when  asked  by  Fan-Ch'e  about 
benevolence,  he  replied:  "It  is  to  love  all  men." 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxii.,  v.  I.) 

Propriety  of  Example.  "  There  are  three  friend- 
ships which  are  advantageous  and  three  which  are 
injurious.  Friendship  with  the  upright,  friend- 
ship with  the  sincere,  and  friendship  with  the  man 
of  much  observation — these  are  advantageous. 
Friendship  with  the  man  of  specious  airs,  friend- 
ship with  the  insinuatingly  soft,  and  friendship 
with  the  glib-tongued — these  are  injurious." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  iv.) 

Confucius,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  num- 
bered among  "the  three  things  men  find  enjoy- 
ment in,  which  are  advantageous,"  this:  "to  find 
enjoyment  in  having  many  worthy  friends"; 
and  said  that  a  youth  "should  .  .  .  cultivate 
the  friendship  of  the  good."  (Analects,  bk.  i., 
c.  vi.)  One  of  the  traits,  also,  of  him  "who  aims 
to  be  a  man  of  complete  virtue"  is,  he  declares, 
that  "he  frequents  the  company  of  men  of  prin- 
ciple that  he  may  be  rectified."  (Analects,  bk.  i., 
c.  xiv.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  converse  is  remarked: 
"Friendship  with  the  dissolute  leads  to  the  neglect 
of  one's  learning."     (Bk.  xvi.,  12.) 

And  in  the   "Shu   King"   (pt.   v.,   bk.   xxvi.) 


General  Human  Relations        127 

Mu  is  recorded  as  voicing  this  warning:  "Culti- 
vate no  intimacy  with  flatterers!" 

The  same  ancient  worthy  is  represented  in  the 
"Shu  King"  (bk.  xxvi.)  to  have  uttered  this  ad- 
monition: "Do  not  employ  men  of  artful  speech 
and  insinuating  looks!" 

Confucius  obviously  intended  to  give  the  same 
counsel,  when  he  said:  "Fine  words  and  an  in- 
sinuating appearance  are  seldom  associated  with 
real  virtue."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  iii.) 

The  contrast  between  the  meritorious  and  the 
meretricious  in  human  character  and  of  the  use- 
fulness of  one  and  the  harmfulness  of  the  other 
is  most  cleverly  revealed  in  this  saying  of  Con- 
fucius, taken  from  the  "Li  Ki"  (bk.  xxix.,  47): 
"The  superior  man  seems  uninteresting  but  he 
aids  to  achievement,  the  inferior  man  winning 
but  he  leads  to  ruin." 

Prudence  as  regards  conversation  and  associa- 
tion with  others  is  also  variously  recommended  by 
Confucius,  as  thus:  "When  a  man  may  be  spoken 
with,  not  to  speak  with  him  is  to  waste  oppor- 
tunity. When  a  man  may  not  be  spoken  with,  to 
speak  with  him  is  to  waste  words."  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  vii.) 

The  last  of  these  admonitions  he  elsewhere 
puts  figuratively,  thus:  "Rotten  wood  cannot  be 
carved;  a  wall  of  dirty  earth  will  not  receive  the 
trowel."     (Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  ix.,  v.  2.) 

The  same  idea  recurs  in  this  counsel:  "Faith- 
fully admonish  your  friend  and  kindly  try  to  lead 


128  The  Superior  Man 

him.    If  you  find  him  impracticable,  desist ;  do  not 
disgrace  yourself."     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxiii.) 

Also  in  this  warning  against  unnecessary  ad- 
monitions: "In  serving  a  prince,  frequent  re- 
monstrances lead  to  disgrace.  Between  friends, 
frequent  reproofs  make  the  friendship  distant." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xxvi.) 

The  three  wishes,  however,  to  which  Confucius 
gave  expression  when  interrogated  by  Tsze-loo, 
were:  "In  regard  to  the  aged,  to  give  them  rest; 
in  regard  to  friends,  to  show  them  sincerity;  in 
regard  to  the  young,  to  treat  them  tenderly." 
(Analects,  bk.  v.,  c.  xxv.) 

It  therefore  appears  that  he  would  not  withhold 
his  counsel  or  even  reproof,  if  needed,  although  it 
might  result  in  breaking  the  bonds  of  friendship ; 
but  would  instead  prefer  to  lose  his  friend,  if  need 
be,  rather  than  fail  of  his  full  duty  toward  him. 
The  attitude  which  the  friend  should  take  and 
the  course,  likewise,  are  indicated  in  these  words: 
"Can  men  refuse  assent  to  the  words  of  just  ad- 
monition? But  it  is  reforming  the  conduct  be- 
cause of  them,  which  is  the  thing."  (Analects, 
bk.  ix.,  c.  xxiii.) 

The  great  value  of  good  example  Confucius 
strikingly  set  forth  in  this  question:  "If  there 
were  not  virtuous  men  in  Loo,  how  could  this  man 
have  acquired  this  character?"  (Analects,  bk.  v., 
c.  ii.) 

So  also  when  remonstrated  with,  upon  express- 
ing his  intention  to  go  and  live  among  the  nine 


General  Human  Relations         129 

wild  tribes  of  the  east,  Confucius,  answering, 
inquired:  "If  a  superior  man  dwelt  among  them, 
what  rudeness  would  there  be?"  (Analects,  bk. 
ix.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

In  another  place  he  says  (Analects,  bk.  L,  c. 
viii.,  v.  3):  "Have  no  friends  not  equal  to  your- 
self!" meaning  thereby  of  course  not  that  they 
should  be  equal  in  abilities,  necessarily,  but  equal 
in  character  and  deportment.  The  same,  very 
nearly,  is  the  significance  of  this  text:  "When  the 
persons  on  whom  a  man  leans  are  proper  persons 
for  him  to  be  intimate  with,  he  can  make  them 
his  guides  and  masters."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  xiii.) 

This  his  disciples,  with  boundless  admiration, 
asserted  that  they  had  themselves  obeyed,  when 
they  had  hung  upon  the  lips  of  Confucius;  for 
they  leave  this  panegyric  of  their  teacher:  "Our 
Master  cannot  be  attained  to,  precisely  as  the 
heavens  cannot  be  scaled  by  the  steps  of  a  ladder." 
(Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  xxv.,  v.  2.) 

That  the  wisdom  of  this  counsel  is  not  confined 
to  the  case  of  a  single  associate,  but  instead  ex- 
tends to  all  associations  both  individual  and  com- 
munal, is  shown  by  this  additional  text,  already 
quoted  in  another  connexion:  "It  is  virtuous 
manners  which  constitute  the  excellence  of  a 
neighbourhood.  If  a  man  in  selecting  a  residence 
do  not  fix  on  one  where  such  prevail,  how  can  he 
be  wise?"     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  i.) 

Yet  the  evil  in  man  is  useful  for  instruction, 
as  well  as  the  good;  and  he  says  of  this:  "When  I 
0 


130  The  Superior  Man 

walk  along  with  two  others,  they  may  serve  me 
as  my  teachers.  I  will  select  their  good  qualities 
and  follow  them,  their  bad  qualities  and  avoid 
them."     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxi.) 

And  in  another  place  he  warns  his  disciples, 
saying:  "When  we  see  men  of  worth,  we  should 
think  of  equalling  them;  when  we  see  men  of  a 
contrary  character,  we  should  turn  inwards  and 
examine  ourselves."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xvii.) 

This  does  not,  however,  necessarily  imply  that 
he  advises  association  with  the  latter  nor  indeed 
does  he,  though  he  says  of  himself:  "It  is  impos- 
sible for  me  to  associate  with  birds  and  beasts, 
as  if  they  were  the  same  with  us.  If  I  associate 
not  with  these  people — with  mankind — with  whom 
am  I  to  associate?"  (Analects,  bk.  xviii.,  c.  vi., 
v.  4.) 

In  reply  to  doubts  expressed  by  his  disciples, 
however,  Confucius  on  one  occasion  defended 
himself  in  a  manner  very  like  the  response  of 
Jesus,  saying:  "I  admit  people's  approach  to  me 
without  committing  myself  as  to  what  they  may 
do  when  they  have  retired.  Why  must  one  be 
so  severe?  If  a  man  purify  himself  to  wait  upon 
me,  I  receive  him,  so  purified,  without  endorsing 
his  past  conduct."  (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxviii., 
v.  2.) 

It  is  interesting  and  refreshing  to  find  in  Con- 
fucius something  akin  to  the  sage  words  of  the 
Elder  Edda:  "Unwise  is  he  who  permits  the  grass 
to  grow  between  his  house  and  his  friend's."     It 


General  Human  Relations         131 

runs:  "  ' How  the  flowers  of  the  aspen-plum  flutter 
and  turn!     Do   I  not  think  of  you?     But  your 
house   is   distant.'    The   Master   said:    'It   is   the 
want  of  thought  over  it.     How  is  it  distant?' 
(Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xxx.) 

That  the  truly  virtuous  man  will  not  want  for 
companionship,  the  sage  thus  declares:  "Virtue 
is  not  left  to  stand  alone.  He  who  practises  it, 
will  have  neighbours."     (Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xxv.) 

This  is  but  another  way  of  saying  what  is  else- 
where so  well  said  in  these  words:  "Let  the  su- 
perior man  never  fail  reverentially  to  order  his 
own  conduct,  and  let  him  be  respectful  to  others 
and  observant  of  propriety;  then  all  within  the 
four  seas  will  be  his  brothers."  (Analects,  bk.  xii., 
c.  v.,  v.  4.) 

Sexual  Propriety.  "The  scholar  keeps  himself 
free  from  all  stain."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxxviii.,  15.) 
"The  Master  said,  'Refusing  to  surrender  their 
wills  or  to  submit  to  any  taint  to  their  persons; 
such,  I  think,  were  Pih-e  and  Shuh-ts'e.' 
(Analects,  bk.  xviii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  2.)  These  two 
passages  illustrate  the  sage's  insistence  upon  sexual 
continence,  among  other  virtues. 

While  of  course  personal  purity  is  a  conception 
which,  both  in  ancient  China  and  in  the  modern 
Occident,  embraces  much  more  than  this,  and  while 
abuses  of  the  appetites  for  food  or  drink,  or  even 
of  the  more  unconsciously  exercised  appetite  for 
breathing,  as  in  smoking,  may  contaminate  in 
essentially  the  same  fashion  as  the  misuse  of  the 


132  The  Superior  Man 

function  which  reproduces  the  race  of  men,  yet 
both  in  the  days  of  Confucius  and  in  these  later 
days  the  superior  seductiveness  of  the  appeal  of 
feminine  beauty  causes  the  mind  to  recur  at  once 
to  chastity  when  personal  purity  is  spoken  of. 

Confucius  distinguished  and  understood  all  of 
these  evil  habits  which  were  exigent  in  his  day  and 
condemned  them,  as  thus:  "To  find  enjoyment  in 
extravagant  pleasures,  to  find  enjoyment  in  idle- 
ness and  sauntering,  to  find  enjoyment  in  the 
pleasures  of  feasting — these  are  injurious."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xvi.,  c.  v.) 

And  again:  "Hard  is  the  case  of  him  who  will 
stuff  himself  with  food  the  whole  day,  without 
applying  the  mind  to  anything."  (Analects, 
bk.  xvii.,  c.  xxii.) 

As  regards  all  the  physical  functions,  Mencius 
puts  at  once  the  problem  and  the  difficulties,  thus : 
"The  physical  organs  with  their  functions  belong 
to  our  Heaven-conferred  nature.  But  a  man  must 
be  a  sage  before  he  can  satisfy  the  design  of  his 
physical  organism."     (Bk.  vii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xxxviii.) 

But  especially  as  respects  the  greatest  of  all 
human  relations,  that  of  a  man  with  a  woman, 
and  those  which  grow  out  of  it,  the  sage  urged 
such  regard  for  the  purity  of  both  sexes  as  would 
assure  the  suppression  of  mere  playing  with  the 
means  of  the  greatest  of  all  human  ends,  the  bring- 
ing of  new  lives  into  being  and  the  development 
of  higher  and  yet  higher  orders  of  human  beings 
upon  the  earth.     In  the  "Li  Ki"  it  is  thus  in- 


General  Human  Relations         133 

sisted  that  the  distinction  between  men  and  women 
must  be  observed  and  preserved  for  the  good  of  all : 
"If  no  distinction  were  observed  between  males 
and  females,  disorder  would  arise  and  grow." 
(Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  32.) 

King  Wan,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  rulers 
of  China,  in  the  time  of  Confucius  already  a  char- 
acter of  almost  legendary  antiquity,  is  said  in 
the  first  Appendix  to  the  "Yi  King"  (sect,  ii., 
c.  xxxviii.,  v.  3)  to  have  given  this  reason  for  the 
necessary  distinction  and  separation  of  men  from 
women:  "Heaven  and  earth  are  separate  and 
apart,  but  the  work  which  they  do  is  the  same. 
Male  and  female  are  separate  and  apart,  but  with 
a  common  will  they  seek  the  same  objects." 

This  rule  of  separation  did  not  withdraw  woman 
into  the  absolute  seclusion  of  a  harem ;  it  permitted 
innocent  intercourse  of  mind  with  mind.  But, 
according  to  the  "Li  Ki, "  it  avoided  all  physical 
contact  and,  so  far  as  possible,  all  opportunities 
for  it. 

These  are  some  of  the  rules  there  laid  down: 
"The  Master  said,  'According  to  the  rules,  male 
and  female  do  not  give  the  cup,  one  to  the  other, 
except  at  sacrifice.  This  was  intended  to  guard 
the  people.'  "  (Bk.  xxvii.,  35.)  "Males  and 
females  should  not  sit  on  the  same  mat,  nor  have 
the  same  stand  or  rack  for  their  clothes,  nor  use 
the  same  towel  or  comb,  nor  let  their  hands  touch 
in  giving  and  receiving."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  iii., 
c.  vi.,  v.  31.)     "They  should  not  share  the  same 


134  The  Superior  Man 

mat  in  lying  down,  they  should  not  ask  or  receive 
anything  from  one  another,  and  they  should  not 
wear  upper  or  lower  garments  alike."  (Bk.  x., 
sect.  L,  12.) 

The  following  explanation  of  the  reasons  for 
such  separation  is  attributed  in  the  "Li  Ki"  to 
Confucius  himself:  "The  Master  said:  'The  cere- 
monial usages  serve  as  dykes  for  the  people  against 
evil  excesses.  They  exemplify  the  separation  be- 
tween the  sexes  which  should  be  maintained, 
that  there  may  be  no  ground  for  suspicion  and 
human  relations  may  be  clearly  denned.  .  .  . 
So  it  was  intended  to  guard  the  people;  yet  there 
are  women  among  them  who  offer  themselves.'  " 
(Bk.  xxvii.,  33.) 

In  a  more  extended  passage,  also  attributed  to 
Confucius,  the  reason  for  the  strictness  of  the 
rules  is  more  fully  stated,  together  with  illustra- 
tions of  their  application,  as  follows:  "The  Master 
said:  'The  love  of  virtue  should  balance  the  love 
of  beauty.  Men  of  position  should  not  be  like 
anglers  for  beauty  in  those  below  them.  The 
superior  man  withstands  the  allurements  of  beauty, 
to  give  an  example  to  the  people.  Thus  men  and 
women,  in  giving  and  receiving,  allow  not  their 
hands  to  touch;  in  driving  even  with  his  wife  in 
his  carriage,  a  husband  holds  forth  his  left  hand; 
when  a  young  aunt,  a  sister,  or  a  daughter  is  wed 
and  returns  to  her  father's  house,  no  male  relative 
should  sit  with  her  upon  the  mat ;  a  widow  should 
not  lament  at  night;  in  asking  after  a  wife  who  is 


General  Human  Relations        135 

ill,  the  nature  of  her  illness  should  not  be  referred 
to.  Thus  it  was  sought  to  guard  the  people. 
Yet  there  are  those  who  become  licentious  and 
introduce  disorder  and  confusion  into  their  fami- 
lies.' "     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxvii.,  37.) 

There  was  no  relaxation  of  this  separation  before 
marriage.  Thus  Mencius  says:  "When  a  son  is 
born,  what  is  desired  for  him  is  that  he  may  have 
a  wife;  when  a  daughter  is  born,  that  she  may  have 
a  husband.  All  men  as  parents  have  this  feeling. 
If,  without  awaiting  the  instructions  of  their 
parents  and  the  arrangements  of  the  intermediary, 
they  bore  holes  to  steal  a  sight  of  each  other,  or 
climb  over  a  wall  to  be  with  each  other,  their 
parents  and  all  others  will  despise  them."  (Bk. 
iii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  iii.,  v.  6.) 

In  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  iii.,  sect,  i., 
c.  viii.,  48)  the  adornment  of  women  so  as  to 
attract  men  is  thus  referred  to:  "Careless  laying 
up  of  things  excites  to  robbery,  as  a  woman's 
adorning  herself  excites  to  lust." 

Under  the  rules  laid  down  in  the  "Li  Ki"  this 
delicacy  about  sex  was  carried  so  far  that  "a  man 
was  not  permitted  to  die  in  the  hands  of  women, 
nor  a  woman  in  the  hands  of  men!"  (Bk.  xix., 
sect,  i.,  1.) 

Confucius  and  for  centuries  before  his  time  the 
dominant  persons  in   Chinese  society  were  firm       s/' 
believers  in  the  home  as  the  sphere  of  woman. 
Within  the  home  she  was  supreme;  the  privacies 
of  her  realm  should  not  be  revealed  without,  nor 


136  The  Superior  Man 

the  hardships  and  worries  of  the  outside  world 
brought  within  to  annoy  and  terrify  her.  In  the 
"Li  Ki"  it  is  said:  "The  men  should  not  speak 
of  what  belongs  to  the  inside  of  the  house,  nor  the 
women  of  what  belongs  to  the  outside."  (Bk.  x., 
sect,  i.,  12.) 

And  again:  "Outside  affairs  should  not  be 
talked  of  inside  the  home,  nor  inside  affairs  outside 
of  it."     (Bk.  i.,  sect.  L,  pt.  iii.,  c.  vi.,  v.  33.) 

The  severity  of  the  rules  enjoined  by  Confucius 
and  his  Chinese  predecessors  in  the  matter  of 
avoiding  temptation  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
following,  the  enforcement  of  which  must  have 
rendered  the  childhood  and  youth  of  the  sage, 
himself  the  only  son  of  a  widow,  unusually  and 
even  painfully  solitary  at  times: 

"The  Master  said:  'One  does  not  pay  visits  to 
the  son  of  a  widow.  This  may  seem  an  obstacle 
to  friendship,  but  the  superior  man,  in  order  to 
avoid  suspicion,  will  make  no  visits  in  such  a  case. 
Hence,  also,  in  calling  upon  a  friend,  if  the  master 
of  the  house  be  not  at  home,  unless  there  be  some 
great  cause  for  it,  the  guest  does  not  cross  the 
threshold.'  "     (Bk.  xxvii.,  36.) 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   FAMILY 

With  the  Chinese,  as  with  the  ancient  Romans, 
the  family  is  the  social  unit,  and  Confucius  has 
much  to  say  on  this  subject.  As  he  connected 
propriety,  the  relation  of  a  man  to  his  fellows, 
with  self-development,  so  he  does  even  more  inti- 
mately the  relation  of  a  man  to  the  members  of 
his  household. 

Prerequisites  to  its  Regulation.  "What  is 
meant  by  'The  regulation  of  one's  own  family 
depends  on  his  self-development '  is  this :  Men  are 
partial  where  they  feel  affection  and  love,  partial 
where  they  despise  and  dislike,  partial  where  they 
stand  in  awe  and  reverence,  partial  where  they 
feel  sorrow  and  compassion,  partial  where  they  are 
arrogant  and  harsh.  Thus  it  is  that  there  are 
few  men  in  the  world  who  love  and  at  the  same 
time  know  the  bad  qualities  of  them  they  love  or 
who  hate  and  yet  know  the  excellences  of  them 
they  hate.  Hence  it  is  said,  in  the  common  adage : 
'A  man  does  not  know  the  wickedness  of  his  son; 
he  does  not  know  the  richness  of  his  growing 
corn.'     This  is  what  is  meant  by  saying  that  if 

137 


138  The  Superior  Man 

there    is    not    self-development,    a    man    cannot 
regulate  his  family."     (Great  Learning,  c.  viii.) 

The  idea  expressed  in  this  passage  from  "The 
Great  Learning"  seems  to  be  that  the  love  of  an 
inferior  man  for  his  family  is  not  really  affectionate 
regard  for  the  welfare  of  wife  or  child  but  merely 
an  indulgent  disposition,  permitting  them,  partly 
through  favour,  partly  because  to  take  the  trouble 
to  regulate  them  is  too  great  a  detriment  to  his 
own  personal  comfort,  to  go  their  own  way  without 
restraint.  Such,  the  sage  conceives,  is  the  con- 
duct of  the  inferior  man  whose  partiality  so  blinds 
him  to  the  faults  of  those  whom  he  loves,  that  he 
cannot  bring  himself  to  correct  them.  The  supe- 
rior man,  he  holds,  should  be,  and  indeed  neces- 
sarily is,  of  the  contrary  view  and  practice.  Of 
this  it  is  said  in  the  "Li  Ki":  "The  superior  man 
commences  with  respect  as  the  basis  of  love.  To 
omit  respect  is  to  leave  no  foundation  for  affec- 
tion. Without  love  there  can  be  no  union;  with- 
out respect  the  love  will  be  ignoble."  (Bk.  xxiv., 

9-) 

Precisely  the  opposite  of  mere  indulgent  laxity 

is  indicated  as  the  course  of  the  superior  man  in 
respect  to  his  family ;  and  it  is  asked  by  Confucius 
with  full  assurance  as  to  what  the  reply  must  be 
if  veracious :"  Can  there  be  love  which  does  not 
lead  to  strictness  with  its  objects?"  (Analects, 
bk.  xiv.,  c.  viii.) 

The  essential  mutuality  and  the  prerequisites 
of  that  union  of  hearts  upon  which  alone  true 


The  Family  139 

marriage  may  rest,  and  by  means  of  which  alone 
lifelong  existence  in  the  closest  of  human  relations 
is  tolerable,  are  well  set  forth  in  this  sentiment 
from  the  lips  of  I  Yin,  the  minister  of  King  Thang, 
which  is  found  in  the  "Shu  King":  "To  evoke 
love,  you  must  love;  to  call  forth  respect,  you 
must  show  respect."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  iv.,  2.) 

For  the  purposes  of  discipline  within  the  family, 
as  well  as  for  material  support  and  protection, 
the  woman  was  counselled  to  subject  herself  to 
the  man.  In  the  "Li  Ki"  it  was  ordered  thus: 
"The  woman  follows  the  man.  In  her  youth  she 
follows  her  father  and  elder  brother;  when  married, 
she  follows  her  husband;  when  her  husband  is 
dead,  she  follows  her  son."     (Bk.  ix.,  10.) 

About  the  worst  that,  in  the  opinion  of  Confu- 
cius, could  be  said  of  any  man,  was  this  remark  of 
Yu,  in  the  "Shu  King,"  speaking  of  Ku  of  Tan, 
son  of  Yao:  "He  introduced  licentious  associates 
into  his  family."     (Pt.  ii.,  bk.  iv.,  1.) 

The  delights  of  a  well-ordered  household,  where 
love  and  harmony  hold  sway,  are  pictured  by  the 
sage  as  follows:  "It  is  said  in  the  Book  of  Poetry: 
'A  happy  union  with  wife  and  children  is  like  the 
music  of  lutes  and  harps!  When  there  is  concord 
among  brethren,  the  harmony  is  delightful  and 
enduring.  Thus  may  you  regulate  your  family 
and  enjoy  the  delights  of  wife  and  children!'  The 
Master  said,  'In  such  a  condition  parents  find 
perfect  contentment.'  "  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
c.  xv.,  v.  2,  3.) 


140  The  Superior  Man 

Wedlock.  "The  observance  of  propriety  com- 
mences with  careful  attention  to  the  relations 
between  husband  and  wife."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  x.,  sect. 

ii.,  I3-) 

In  these  words,  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  book  of  the 
rules  of  propriety,  celebrates  the  prime  importance 
of  the  marriage  relation  and  of  the  useful  principles 
for  the  regulation  of  human  conduct  which  spring 
out  of  it.  This  was  a  favourite  and  familiar 
idea  of  Confucius  and  will  be  adverted  to  fre- 
quently in  the  development  of  his  theories  of  the 
regulation  of  the  family  and  of  the  government. 

In  his  days,  as  in  these  days,  there  were  not 
wanting  those  who  saw  in  marriage  a  mere  cere- 
mony, conformity  with  which  added  no  element 
of  sacredness  to  a  natural  and  necessary  relation. 
These  were  rebuked  in  the  "Li  Ki"  in  these  terms: 
"He  who  thinks  the  old  embankments  useless  and 
destroys  them,  is  sure  to  suffer  from  the  desola- 
tion caused  by  overflowing  water;  and  he  who 
should  consider  the  old  rules  of  propriety  useless 
and  abolish  them,  would  be  sure  to  suffer  from 
the  calamities  of  disorder.  Thus  if  the  ceremonies 
of  marriage  were  discontinued,  the  path  of  hus- 
band and  wife  would  be  embittered  and  there 
would  be  many  offences  of  licentiousness  and 
depravity."     (Bk.  xxiii.,  7,  8.) 

Again  in  the  same  book  this  is  put  tersely  and 
pointedly,  thus:  "This  ceremony  [i.  e.,  marriage] 
lies  at  the  foundation  of  government."  (Bk. 
xxiv.,  11.)     In  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  the 


The  Family  141 

"duties  of  universal  obligation"  are  given  as 
follows:  "The  duties  are  between  sovereign  and 
minister,  father  and  son,  husband  and  wife,  elder 
and  younger  brother,  friend  and  friend."  (C.  xx., 
v.  8.) 

In  the  "Elder  Tai's  Book  of  Rites"  (bk.  lxxx.), 
are  certain  advisory  regulations  as  to  the  choice 
of  a  wife,  chiefly  that  she  shall  be  of  a  family  of 
a  high  standard  of  moral  conduct  and  shall  not 
be  a  daughter  of  a  disloyal  house,  of  a  disorderly 
house,  of  a  house  with  more  than  one  generation 
of  criminals  or  of  a  leprous  house,  nor  be  taken  if 
the  mother  is  dead  and  the  daughter  is  old. 

The  one  inexorable  rule  as  regards  marriage  was 
this:  "The  Master  said:  'A  man  in  taking  a  wife 
does  not  choose  one  of  the  same  surname  as  him- 
self.' "     (LiKi,  bk.  xxvii.,  34.) 

This,  rather  than  any  other  rule  based  upon 
kinship,  was  enforced  because  the  wife  was  con- 
sidered to  merge  herself  in  her  husband's  family, 
to  join  in  sacrifices  to  his  ancestors  and  to  give 
her  life  over  to  bearing  and  rearing  sons  to  continue 
his  race  and  to  preserve  his  ancestral  temples. 
She  thus  lost  her  relationship  to  her  own  kindred, 
during  the  continuance  of  the  marriage  relation, 
and  permanently  unless  it  were  dissolved  by 
divorce;  and  therefore  relatives  on  the  mothers' 
side,  however  near,  were  not  considered  to  be 
within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  consanguinity, 
while  relatives  on  the  father's  side,  however  remote, 
were  so  esteemed. 


142  The  Superior  Man 

In  the  "Tso  Chuan  "  or  "Tso's  Commentary' ' 
the  following  reason  for  this  rule  is  given:  "When 
husband  and  wife  are  of  the  same  surname,  their 
children  do  not  do  well  and  multiply." 

This  observation,  applied,  however,  to  relatives 
on  either  side,  is  in  harmony  with  the  most  modern 
discoveries  concerning  the  effect  of  persistent  in- 
breeding as  well  as  modern  views  of  propriety. 
In  "Spring  and  Autumn"  and  later  in  the  "Code 
of  the  Ts'ing  Dynasty"  (c.  x.),  this  was  extended 
to  proscribe  marriages  within  certain  degrees  of 
relationship  on  the  mother's  side.  The  wife  be- 
came, by  her  marriage,  of  the  same  rank  as  her 
husband,  thus  being  identified  closely  with  his 
family.  In  the  "  Li  Ki "  it  is  said  of  this : ' '  Though 
the  wife  had  no  rank,  she  was  held  to  be  of  the 
rank  of  her  husband  and  she  took  her  seat  accord- 
ing to  the  position  belonging  to  him."  (Bk.  ix., 
sect,  iii.,  II.) 

The  demoralizing  "morganatic"  marriage,  in- 
dulged by  certain  royalties  of  Europe,  is  accord- 
ingly unknown  in  China. 

jT"*As  a  part  of  the  ceremony  of  marriage,  the  bride- 
groom went  in  person  to  bring  his  bride  home  to  his 
father's  house,  where  she  became  a  member  of  his 
father's  family  and  a  daughter  to  his  mother.  This 
is  referred  to  in  the  "  Li  Ki "  as  follows :  "The  bride- 
groom went  in  person  to  meet  the  bride,  the  man 
taking  the  initiative  and  not  the  woman — accord- 
ing to  the  idea  that  regulates  the  relation  between 
the  strong  and  the  weak."     (Bk.  ix.,  sect,  iii.,  8.) 


The  Family  143 

In  the  same  book  there  is  recorded  an  argument 
upon  the  propriety  of  this  custom,  in  which  Con- 
fucius is  represented  as  taking  part.  The  record 
runs  as  follows:  "The  duke  said,  '  .  .  .  For  the 
bridegroom  in  his  square-topped  cap  to  go  in 
person  to  meet  his  bride,  is  it  not  making  too  much 
of  it?'  Confucius  looked  surprised,  became  very 
serious  and  said,  '  It  is  the  union  of  two  surnames 
in  friendship  and  love,  to  continue  the  posterity 
of  the  sages  of  old,  to  supply  those  who  shall 
preside  at  the  sacrifices  to  Heaven  and  Earth, 
at  sacrifices  to  ancestors,  at  sacrifices  to  the  spirits 
of  the  land  and  grain ;  how  can  you,  then,  call  the 
ceremony  too  great?'  "     (Bk.  xxiv.,  10.) 

Mencius  thus  quotes  from  the  Ritual  the  in- 
structions which  the  bride's  mother  gives  her  in 
view  of  the  approaching  nuptials : "  At  the  marriage 
of  a  young  woman,  her  mother  admonishes  her, 
accompanying  her  to  the  door  on  her  leaving  and 
cautioning  her  with  these  words,  'You  are  going 
to  your  home.  You  must  be  respectful.  You 
must  be  careful.  Do  not  disobey  your  husband ! '  ' 
(Bk.  iii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  2.) 

Though  the  Chinese  girl  was  brought  up,  then 
as  now,  with  matrimony  in  view  as  her  goal,  and 
though  she  was  trained  with  an  eye  to  subjection 
to  her  husband  in  the  regulation  of  the  family 
and  to  obedience  to  her  husband's  mother  in 
the  home,  it  does  not  appear  that  she  was  trained 
in  respect  to  rearing  of  children;  for  of  this  it  is 
said  in  "The  Great  Learning"    (c.  ix.,  v.  2):  "If 


144  The  Superior  Man 

a  mother  is  really  anxious  to  do  so,  though  she 
may  not  hit  precisely  the  wants  of  her  child,  she 
will  not  be  far  from  it.  There  has  never  been  a 
girl  who  learned  to  bring  up  a  child,  that  she 
might  afterwards  marry." 

Concubinage  was  then  and  theretofore,  as  now, 
also  an  institution  in  China  and  is  recognized  by 
Confucius  and  rules  laid  down  also  for  its  regula- 
tion. The  relationship  was  treated  as  not  less 
regular  than  that  of  marriage  but  it  involved  lower 
standing  for  the  concubine  and  her  offspring ;  not- 
withstanding which  frequently  the  wife's  younger 
sister  became  the  concubine,  not  without  the 
active  connivance  of  the  wife,  lonely  amid  unfa- 
miliar surroundings  and  longing  for  the  companion- 
ship of  her  own  kin.  The  wife  had  dominion  in 
the  home  over  concubines  and  their  children. 

The  double  standard  was  therefore  known  and 
its  consequences  openly  accepted,  though  in  the 
majority  of  homes  one  wife  reigned  supreme  and, 
as  has  been  seen,  it  was  such  a  home  the  felicity 
of  which  Confucius  portrayed  in  his  tribute  to  the 
marriage  relation,  quoted  at  the  close  of  the  next 
preceding  subdivision. 

Concubinage  was  deemed  not  merely  permis- 
sible but  commendable  when  the  wife  remained 
barren  or  even  when  there  were  daughters  but  no 
son  to  perpetuate  the  name  of  the  husband  and 
maintain  the  altars  of  devotion  of  his  ancestors. 
Had  it  been  otherwise,  undoubtedly  divorces, 
with  their  hardships,  would  have  been  more  com- 


The  Family  145 

mon  and  would  have  extended  to  most  cases  of 
infertility,  even  though  no  personal  incompatibility 
accompanied  it. 

The  institution  of  concubinage  cast  no  doubt 
upon  the  parentage  of  any  child;  no  other  woman 
could  claim  the  maternity  nor  was  the  paternity 
of  the  child  of  the  wife  or  of  the  concubine  rendered 
dubious  thereby.  To  this  circumstance,  perhaps, 
is  attributable  the  countenance  given  to  this  form 
of  the  double  standard.  The  contrary  condition, 
i.  e.,  that  want  of  fidelity  on  the  part  of  the  woman 
exposes  her  progeny  to  question  as  to  their  pater- 
nity, doubtless  accounts  for  the  great  stress  then 
and  ever  placed  upon  fidelity  on  the  part  of  woman. 
This  applies,  of  course,  to  concubine  as  to  wife 
and  for  the  same  reason;  but  constancy  is,  not- 
withstanding, deemed  pre-eminently  the  virtue  of 
a  wife. 

The  dignity  of  marriage  and  of  procreation  is 
thought  by  Confucius  and  his  followers  to  be  such 
that  the  husband  and  wife,  together  with  Heaven, 
form  a  "  ternion,"  co-operating  to  people  the  earth, 
in  that  wherever  there  is  true  marriage,  there  also 
God  is  to  give  the  increase.  It  is  thus  put  in 
Ku-liang's  Commentary:  "The  female  alone  can- 
not procreate;  the  male  alone  cannot  propagate; 
and  Heaven  alone  cannot  produce  a  man.  The 
three  collaborating,  man  is  born.  Hence  any 
one  may  be  called  the  son  of  his  mother  or  the 
son  of  Heaven." 

And  in  "Many   Dewdrops  of   the  Spring  and 


146  The  Superior  Man 

Autumn"  (bk.  lxx.),  this  passage  strongly  em- 
phasizes the  function  of  the  divine  forces  in  the 
reproduction  of  men:  "There  has  never  been  a 
birth  without  the  collaboration  of  Heaven.  God 
is  the  creator  of  all  men." 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  sacredness  and  permanence 
of  marriage  are  thus  inculcated:  "Faithfulness  is 
requisite  in  all  service  of  others  and  faithfulness 
is  especially  the  virtue  of  a  wife.  Once  mated 
with  her  husband,  all  her  life  she  will  not  change 
her  feeling  of  duty  to  him ;  hence,  when  the  hus- 
band dies,  she  will  not  marry  again."  (Bk.  ix., 
sect,  iii.,  7.) 

Divorce.  In  the  Confucian  conception  of  mar- 
riage, based  upon  the  ancient  Chinese  customs, 
there  seems  to  be  more  constraint  about  entering 
into  wedlock  than  about  continuing  in  it. 

Thus  a  father  might  choose  the  bride  for  his 
son,  though  of  course  conceivably  the  son  might 
— but  under  the  Chinese  rules  of  family  discipline, 
seldom  would — refuse  to  accept  the  choice.  The 
father  of  the  bride  was  then  approached  by  the 
father  of  the  prospective  bridegroom;  his  consent 
was  the  consent  of  his  daughter.  Of  course, 
again,  she  could  refuse  to  acquiesce  and  a  con- 
siderate father  would  not  coerce  her  choice;  but 
filial  obedience  and  confidence  were  often  the  only 
elements  operative  in  determining  that  choice. 

It  was  thus,  indeed,  that  the  marriage  which 
resulted  in  the  birth  of  Confucius  came  about. 
It  was  between  a  widower  of  seventy  years,  al- 


The  Family  H7 

ready  the  father  of  nine  daughters  but  of  only 
one  son,  a  hopeless  cripple,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
a  maiden  of  seventeen  years  on  the  other,  both  of 
whose  older  sisters  had  declined  the  offer  while 
she  followed  her  father's  counsel. 

Once  wedded,  however,  the  husband  and  the 
wife  were  free  to  separate  at  will  and  without 
constraint,  save  as  the  authority  of  the  husband's 
parents  over  him — not  relaxed  upon  his  marriage — 
might  restrain  him.  Marriage,  therefore,  was 
treated  as  a  contract  which  was  at  all  times  mutual, 
binding  only  as  the  parties  continued  to  consent 
that  it  should  bind.  Either  party  could  with  a 
word  dissolve  it. 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  following  account  is  given 
of  the  proper  forms  to  be  observed  in  divorcement : 
"When  a  feudal  lord  sent  his  wife  away,  she  pro- 
ceeded on  her  journey  to  her  own  state,  and  was 
received  there  with  the  observances  due  a  lord's 
wife.  The  messenger  accompanying  her  then 
discharged  his  commission,  saying:  'My  poor 
master,  from  his  want  of  ability,  was  not  able  to 
follow  her  and  to  take  part  in  the  services  at  your 
altars  and  in  your  ancestral  temple.  He  has, 
therefore,  sent  me,  so-and-so;  and  I  venture  to 
inform  your  officer,  appointed  for  the  purpose,  of 
what  he  has  done. '  The  officer  presiding  on  this 
occasion  replied:  'My  poor  master  in  his  former 
communication  to  you  did  not  inform  you  about 
her  and  he  does  not  presume  to  do  anything  but 
to  receive  your  master's  message,   respectfully.' 


148  The  Superior  Man 

The  officers  in  attendance  on  the  commissioner 
then  set  forth  the  various  articles  sent  with  the 
lady  on  her  marriage  and  those  on  the  other  side 
received  them. 

"When  the  wife  went  away  from  her  husband, 
she  sent  a  messenger  and  took  leave  of  him,  saying : 
'So-and-so,  through  her  want  of  ability,  is  not 
able  to  keep  on  supplying  the  vessels  of  grain  for 
your  sacrifices;  and  has  sent  me,  so-and-so,  to 
presume  to  announce  this  to  your  attendants.' 
The  principal  party  on  the  other  side  replied: 
'My  son,  in  his  inferiority,  does  not  presume  to 
avoid  your  punishing  him,  and  dares  not  but  re- 
spectfully receive  your  orders. '  The  messenger 
then  retired,  the  principal  party  bowing  to  him 
and  escorting  him.  If  the  husband's  father  were 
living,  he  named  himself  as  principal  party ;  if  he 
were  dead,  an  elder  brother  of  the  husband  acted 
for  him  and  the  message  was  given  as  from  him; 
if  there  were  no  elder  brother,  it  ran  as  from  the 
husband,  himself."     (Bk.  xviii.,   sect,   ii.,  pt.   ii., 

34.  35-) 

Though  this  was  given  in  the  "Li  Ki"  or  book 
of  the  rules  of  propriety  as  a  description  of  the  cus- 
toms of  the  ancients  of  high  rank,  it  was  intended, 
with  such  modifications  in  the  matter  of  greater 
directness  and  simplicity  as  the  lowliness  and 
poverty  of  the  parties  might  require,  to  supply 
rules  of  ceremony  for  the  divorce  of  all  mismated 
husbands  and  wives. 

The  utter  absence  of  recrimination  and  abuse, 


The  Family  149 

due  of  course  to  the  circumstance  that  charges  of 
evil  conduct  were  not  required  as  a  condition  to 
the  divorce  being  allowed  and  that,  instead,  the 
mere  will  of  either  party  was  enough,  contrasts 
— to  the  advantage  of  which  need  not  be  said — 
sharply  and  strongly  with  the  invasion  of  family 
privacy,  the  exposure  of  family  shame,  and  the 
defamation  of  character  which  accompany  divorce 
proceedings  under  the  laws  of  the  advanced  civi- 
lization of  Occidental  countries;  and  the  contrast 
evokes  the  query:  Do  we  thus  assure  the  indis- 
solubility of  the  marriage  tie  in  a  degree  that  more 
than  offsets  the  mischief  which  divorce  actions 
inflict  upon  society? 

There  was,  and  is,  even  under  such  a  system, 
much  moral  restraint  upon  the  wife  to  continue 
such,  even  though  not  satisfied  with  her  lot.  Her 
prospects  of  a  second  and  happier  marriage  are 
often  not  alluring.  The  reception  at  her  own 
home  which  she  may  expect,  is  not  likely  to  be  a 
warm  welcome  and  it  may  be  cold  or  even  harsh. 
And  if  she  has  children,  her  lot  is  even  more  de- 
plorable for,  after  very  early  infancy,  they  be- 
come members  of  her  husband's  family  and  are 
lost  to  her,  forever.  There  is  also  the  prosaic 
bread-and-butter  question  in  many  cases  and  it  is 
presented  in  an  aggravated  form  in  a  country 
where  by  general  consent  a  virtuous  woman's 
place  is  in  a  home. 

Not  the  least  of  the  mother's  hardships  if  she 
be  the  mother  of  the  eldest  living  son,  who  becomes, 


15°  The  Superior  Man 

after  his  father's  death,  the  head  of  the  family, 
is  that  after  her  death  he  may  not  go  into  mourn- 
ing for  her  if  divorced;  for  he  is  too  completely 
identified  with  the  service  of  the  departed  an- 
cestors of  the  family  of  which  he  is  the  head  and 
which  she  has  abandoned. 

The  hardships  inflicted  upon  the  husband  by 
divorce  may  not  be  so  serious.  He  must  return  the 
dower  but  he  retains  the  more  precious  fruits  of 
the  marriage,  his  children.  Yet  consciousness  of 
this  very  inequality,  coupled  with  the  traditional 
protective  attitude  toward  the  women  of  one's 
own  family,  must  act  upon  the  husband  as  a 
powerful  deterrent,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  he  may  seek  through  concubinage  a  more 
acceptable  consort  and  mother  for  his  children, 
without  thus  entirely  displacing,  humiliating,  and 
perhaps  greatly  injuring  his  spouse. 

In  the  Elder  Tai's  Record  of  Rites  (bk.  lxxx.), 
recognized  causes  for  divorcing  a  wife  are  set 
forth  as  follows:  "Disobedience  to  parents-in-law, 
failure  to  bear  a  son,  adultery,  jealousy  of  her 
husband,  leprosy,  garrulity,  theft";  but  the  hus- 
band should  not  divorce  her  if  she  has  no  home  to 
return  to,  if  she  has  with  him  mourned  three  years 
for  his  parents,  or  if  his  condition  was  formerly 
poor  and  mean  and  is  now  rich  and  honourable. 
These  rules  are  found  in  the  code  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty,  also. 

But  in  practice  the  only  restraints  upon  the 
husband,    other   than    the   requirement    that  he 


The  Family  151 

must  return  the  dower,  are,  first,  that  he  must 
obtain  the  approval  of  his  father,  if  living,  or  his 
elder  brother,  if  the  father  is  dead,  and,  second, 
that  his  wife  may,  through  her  ranking  male  rela- 
tive, appeal  to  the  court  if  one  of  the  three  condi- 
tions under  which  divorce  is  not  permissible  is 
alleged  to  exist.  The  husband  and  his  father  or 
elder  brother  are  sole  and  final  judges  whether  or 
not  one  of  the  seven  causes  is  present.  The  wife 
may  divorce  her  husband  with  his  consent,  which 
means,  again,  with  the  consent  of  his  father  or 
elder  brother,  also;  and,  since  she  must  return  to 
her  father  or  elder  brother,  she  must  of  course 
first  obtain  their  consent  and  approval.  Divorce, 
then,  is  by  the  parties,  themselves,  and  not  by  a 
court,  though  under  certain  circumstances  sub- 
ject to  judicial  review.  It  is  not  especially  com- 
mon in  China;  and  monogamy  is  also  there  the 
rule.  In  other  words  the  admonition  with  which 
the  last  chapter  closed,  is  there  well  heeded,  both 
as  to  union  with  but  one  wife  and  as  to  permanence 
of  marriage,  though  both  marriage  and  divorce 
are  so  little  limited  by  law;  as  is  also  well  said  in 
the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  vi.,  sect,  ii.,  32):  "The 
rule  for  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife  is  that 
it  should  be  enduring." 

Parenthood.  "Here  now  is  the  affection  of  a 
father  for  his  sons:  He  is  proud  of  the  meritori- 
ous among  them  and  ranks  those  lower  who  are 
not  so  able.  But  that  of  a  mother  is  such  that, 
while  she  is  proud  of  the  meritorious,  she  cherishes 


152  The  Superior  Man 

those  who  are  not  so  able.  The  mother  deals 
with  them  on  grounds  of  affection  rather  than  of 
pride;  the  father  on  grounds  of  pride  rather  than 
affection."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxix.,  29.) 

The  justice  and  discrimination  which  the 
superior  man  displays  as  a  father,  and  without 
which  he  would  act  as  an  unreasoning  animal 
rather  than  as  a  superior  man,  are  tempered,  how- 
ever, by  his  natural  affection  for  his  progeny. 
Their  relations  are  reciprocal,  thus:  "As  a  son  he 
rested  in  filial  piety.  As  a  father  he  rested  in 
kindness."     (Great  Learning,  c.  iii.,  v.  3.) 

This  mutual  fondness  is  given  apt  expression 
in  this  saying:  "Everyone  calls  his  son,  his  son, 
whether  he  has  talents  or  has  not  talents."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xi.,  c.  vii.,  v.  2.) 

But  its  propriety  and  the  extent  of  its  applica- 
tion are  better  illustrated  by  this  narrative:  "The 
duke  of  She  informed  Confucius,  saying,  'Among 
us  here  there  are  those  who  may  be  styled  up- 
right in  conduct.  If  their  father  have  stolen  a 
sheep,  they  will  bear  witness  to  the  fact.'  Con- 
fucius said,  '  Among  us,  in  our  part  of  the  country, 
those  who  are  upright  are  different  from  this. 
The  father  conceals  the  misconduct  of  his  son  and 
the  son  conceals  the  misconduct  of  the  father. 
Uprightness  is  to  be  found  in  this.'"  (Analects, 
bk.  xiii.,  c.  xviii.) 

In  the  "Analects,"  Confucius  says:  "A  youth, 
when  at  home,  should  be  filial,  and,  abroad,  re- 
spectful to  his  elders.     He  should  be  earnest  and 


The  Family  153 

truthful.  He  should  overflow  in  love  to  all  and 
cultivate  the  friendship  of  the  good.  When  he 
has  time  and  opportunity,  after  the  performance 
of  these  things,  he  should  employ  them  in  polite 
studies."     (Bk.  i.,  c.  vi.) 

The  cultivation  of  these  qualities  is  necessary 
in  order  that  he  may  be  regarded  as  filial;  for 
while,  as  will  be  seen,  much  stress  is  placed  upon 
filial  observances,  the  most  important  thing  is  to 
be  a  worthy  son.  Thus  in  the  "Li  Ki"  it  runs: 
"He  whom  the  superior  man  pronounces  filial  is 
he  whom  the  people  of  the  state  praise,  saying 
with  admiration,  'Happy  are  the  parents  who 
have  such  a  son  as  this ! '"     (Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  1 1 .) 

The  opposite  picture  is  unflinchingly  and  un- 
sparingly presented  in  these  texts  of  the  "Ana- 
lects," already  quoted:  "In  youth,  not  humble  as 
befits  a  junior;  in  manhood,  doing  nothing  worthy 
of  being  handed  down ;  and  living  on  to  old  age : — 
this  is  to  be  a  pest."  (Bk.  xiv.,  c.  xlvi.)  "I  observe 
that  he  is  fond  of  occupying  the  seat  of  a  full- 
grown  man;  I  observe  that  he  walks  shoulder  to 
shoulder  with  his  elders.  He  is  not  one  who  is 
seeking  to  make  progress  in  learning.  He  wishes 
quickly  to  become  a  man."      (Bk.  xiv.,  c.  xlvii., 

v.  3-) 

Yet  the  mere  shortcomings  of  youth  are  to  be 
viewed  charitably  and  judgment  is  to  be  suspended 
until  time  shall  tell.  This  Confucius  puts  as 
follows:  "A  youth  is  to  be  regarded  with  respect. 
How  do  we  know  that  his  future  will  not  be  equal 


154  The  Superior  Man 

to  our  present?  If  he  reach  the  age  of  forty  or 
fifty,  and  has  not  made  himself  heard  of,  then 
indeed  he  will  not  be  worth  being  regarded  with 
respect."     (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xxii.) 

And  one  of  the  three  things  which  he  especially 
enjoins  in  relations  to  others  is  that  all  deal  con- 
siderately with  the  young;  he  says  in  the  "Ana- 
lects" that  his  wishes  are:  "In  regard  to  the  aged, 
to  give  them  repose ;  in  regard  to  friends,  to  show 
them  sincerity;  in  regard  to  the  young,  to  treat 
them  tenderly."     (Bk.  v.,  c.  xxv.,  v.  4.) 

The  responsibilities  of  the  father  are  of  course 
more  serious  and  grave.  They  extend  even  to 
the  avoidance  of  such  comradeship  with  his  son 
as  might  be  misunderstood  and  so  tend  to  impair 
the  son's  veneration.  Thus,  as  has  already  been 
quoted,  it  is  said:  "I  have  also  heard  that  the 
superior  man  maintains  a  distant  reserve  towards 
his  son."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  5.) 

He  must  keep  himself  a  veritable  hero  in  his 
son's  eyes,  in  order  that  he  may  command,  and 
may  be  worthy  to  command,  his  admiration  and 
reverence.  This  also  he  must  achieve  in  very 
truth  and  not  by  deception;  for  in  the  "Li  Ki" 
it  is  said:  "A  boy  should  never  be  permitted  to 
see  an  instance  of  deceit."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  v.,  17.) 

Lest  the  son  should  thereby  come  to  regard  the 
father  otherwise  than  as  an  ever-watchful  and 
loving  guardian,  happy  in  his  son's  well-doing 
and  grieved,  rather  than  wroth,  at  his  misdoings, 


The  Family  155 

it  was  enjoined  by  Mencius  that  the  father  should 
not  be  his  son's  tutor,  for  fear  the  necessary  disci- 
pline estrange  them,  thus: 

"Kung-sun  Chow  said,  'Why  is  it  that  the 
superior  man  does  not  himself  teach  his  son?' 

"Mencius  replied,  'The  circumstances  of  the 
case  forbid  its  being  done.  The  teacher  must 
inculcate  what  is  correct.  When  he  inculcates 
what  is  correct  and  his  lessons  are  not  practised, 
he  follows  them  up  with  being  angry.  When  he 
follows  them  up  with  being  angry,  then  contrary 
to  what  should  be,  he  is  offended  with  his  son. 
At  the  same  time  the  pupil  says,  "My  master 
inculcates  in  me  what  is  correct  and  he  himself 
does  not  proceed  in  a  correct  path."  The  result 
of  this  is,  that  father  and  son  are  offended  with 
each  other.  When  father  and  son  come  to  be 
offended  with  each  other,  the  case  is  evil. 

"'The  ancients  exchanged  sons,  and  one  taught 
the  son  of  another. 

"'Between  father  and  son,  there  should  be  no 
reproving  admonitions  to  what  is  good.  Such 
reproofs  lead  to  alienation,  and  than  alienation 
there  is  nothing  more  inauspicious.'"  (Bk.  iv., 
pt.  i.,  c.  xviii.) 

And  in  book  v.  of  Pan  Ku,  a  Confucian  writer 
of  the  first  century,  the  power  of  the  father  over 
the  son  was  distinctly  limited,  as  a  matter  of  law, 
on  the  ground  of  the  universal  fatherhood  of  God, 
thus:  "  'Among  all  the  lives  given  by  Heaven  and 
Earth,  man  is  the  noblest.'     All  men  are  children 


156  The  Superior  Man 

of  God  and  are  merely  made  flesh  through  the 
spirits  of  father  and  mother.  .  .  .  Therefore, 
the  father  has  not  absolute  power  over  the  son." 

Essentials  of  Filial  Piety.  ' '  Our  bodies,  to  every 
hair  and  shred  of  skin,  are  received  from  our 
parents.  We  must  not  presume  to  injure  or  to 
wound  them.  This  is  the  beginning  of  filial  piety. 
When  we  have  established  our  character  by  the 
practice  of  this  filial  course,  so  as  to  make  our 
name  famous  in  future  ages  and  thereby  glorify 
our  parents,  this  is  the  end  of  filial  piety."  (Hsiao 
King,  "Book  of  Filial  Piety,"  c.  i.) 

It  is  remarkable  and  significant  that  it  should 
in  these  modern  days  be  necessary  to  say  "filial 
piety."  "Pietas"  originally  signified  reverent 
devotion  to  parents  and  unflagging  service  of 
them.  Through  this  the  meaning,  "service  of  the 
Heavenly  Father,"  has  been  derived.  Meanwhile 
the  original  meaning  of  the  word  has  been  lost — 
indeed,  as  a  serious  duty,  the  very  thing  itself  is 
near  to  have  been  lost — and  it  is  now  requisite 
to  use  the  tautology,  "filial  piety,"  to  express  the 
idea  for  which  "piety"  alone  once  stood. 

The  Romans  and  the  Greeks,  however,  scarcely 
at  any  time  knew  filial  piety  of  the  same  type  as 
this  institution  of  the  Chinese;  for,  though  they 
possessed  their  "Lares  and  Penates,"  or  house- 
hold divinities,  making  sacrifices  to  departed 
ancestors  was  probably  never  erected  into  a  well- 
established,  long-cherished,  everywhere  honoured 
practice. 


The  Family  157 

The  piety  of  the  ancient  Chinese,  nevertheless, 
did  not  solely  or  even  primarily  consist  in  sacrifices 
to  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  It  called  for  the  greatest 
reverence  and  devotion  while  the  parent  is  yet 
living.  Its  most  important  phase,  indeed,  was 
the  obligation  it  imposed  to  live  an  honourable 
and  creditable  life,  that  the  parents  might  not 
have  occasion  to  blush  for  their  offspring. 

This  feature  cannot  be  overemphasized;  for 
it  is  the  chief  sanction  for  ethical  conduct,  accord- 
ing to  the  morals  of  Confucius,  aside  from  the 
ambition  to  become  a  superior  human  being  as 
an  end  in,  and  of,  itself.  In  the  "Li  Ki"  this 
view  is  ascribed  directly  to  Confucius,  thus:  "I 
heard  from  Tsang-Tsze  that  he  had  heard  the 
Master  say  that  of  all  that  Heaven  produces  and 
Earth  nourishes  there  is  none  so  great  as  man. 
His  parents  give  birth  to  his  person  all  complete 
and  to  return  it  to  them  complete  may  be  called 
filial  duty."     (Bk.  xxi.,  sec.  ii.,  14.) 

This  is  enjoined  again  and  again  in  this  book  of 
the  rules  of  propriety,  as  in  the  following:  "The 
superior  man's  respect  extends  to  all.  It  is  at 
its  greatest  when  he  respects  himself.  He  is  but 
an  outgrowth  fromhis  parents ;  dare  he  do  otherwise 
than  preserve  his  self-respect?  If  he  cannot 
respect  himself,  he  injures  them."     (Bk.  xxiv.,  12.) 

The  following  more  detailed  statement  from  the 
same  book  is  ascribed  to  Tsang-Tsze,  himself: 
"The  body  is  that  which  has  been  transmitted  to 
us  by  our  parents;  dare  any  one  allow  himself  to 


158  The  Superior  Man 

be  irreverent  in  the  employment  of  their  legacy? 
If  a  man  in  his  own  house  and  privacy  be  not  grave, 
he  is  not  filial;  if  in  serving  his  ruler  he  be  not 
loyal,  he  is  not  filial ;  if  in  discharging  the  duties  of 
office  he  be  not  reverent,  he  is  not  filial;  if  with 
friends  he  be  not  sincere,  he  is  not  filial;  if  on  the 
field  of  battle  he  be  not  brave,  he  is  not  filial.  If 
he  fail  in  these  five  things,  the  evil  will  reach  his 
parents ;  dare  he  then  do  otherwise  than  reverently 
attend  to  them?"     (Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  11.) 

The  reverential  service,  due  to  parents  as  an 
act  of  filial  piety,  is  not  confined  to  service  of  the 
father,  though  he  is  the  more  frequently  men- 
tioned; the  mother  is  equally  the  object  of  the 
devotion  and  love  of  their  offspring.  Thus  in  the 
"Hsiao  King,"  or  Book  of  Filial  Piety  (c.  v.), 
it  is  said:  "As  they  serve  their  fathers,  so  they 
serve  their  mothers,  and  they  love  them  equally. 
As  they  serve  their  fathers,  so  they  serve  their 
rulers  and  they  reverence  them  equally.  Hence 
love  is  what  is  chiefly  rendered  to  the  mother  and 
reverence  is  what  is  chiefly  rendered  to  the  ruler, 
while  both  of  these  things  are  given  to  the  father." 

The  same  book  contains  also  the  following 
statement  of  the  reciprocal  and  mutual  duties  of 
parent  and  child:  "The  son  derives  his  life  from 
his  parents  and  no  greater  gift  could  possibly 
be  transmitted;  his  ruler  and  parent,  his  father, 
deals  with  him  accordingly  and  no  generosity 
could  be  greater  than  his."     (C.  ix.) 

The  effectiveness  of  filial  piety  as  a  motive  of 


The  Family  159 

well-doing  and  the  inspiration  which  it  supplies 
are  well  set  forth  in  this  passage  from  the  "  Li  Ki "  : 
"The  superior  man,  going  back  to  his  ancient 
fathers  and  returning  to  the  authors  of  his  being, 
does  not  forget  those  to  whom  he  owes  his  life; 
and  therefore  he  calls  forth  all  his  reverence,  gives 
full  vent  to  his  feelings,  and  exhausts  his  strength 
in  discharging  this  service — as  a  tribute  of  grati- 
tude to  his  parents  he  dares  not  but  do  his  utmost." 
(Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  4.) 

The  following  panegyrics  of  filial  piety  from  the 
"Hsiao  King"  show  the  exalted  regard  in  which 
Confucius  and  his  predecessors  held  this  virtue, 
which  indeed  they  made  the  foundation  for  all 
other  virtues: 

"There  are  three  thousand  offences  against 
which  the  five  punishments  are  directed;  there  is 
none  of  them  greater  than  to  be  unfilial."     (C.  xi.) 

"The  disciple  Tsang  said,  'Immense,  indeed, 
is  the  greatness  of  filial  piety!'  The  Master  re- 
plied, 'Yes,  filial  piety  is  the  constant  requirement 
of  Heaven,  the  righteousness  of  earth,  and  the 
practical  duty  of  man. '"     (C.  vii.) 

"The  disciple  Tsang  said,  'I  venture  to  ask 
whether  in  the  virtue  of  the  sages  there  was  not 
something  greater  than  filial  piety?'  The  Master 
replied,  '  Of  all  creatures  produced  by  Heaven  and 
Earth,  man  is  the  noblest.  Of  all  man's  actions 
there  is  none  greater  than  filial  piety.'"     (C.  ix.) 

Pious  Regard  for  Living  Parents.  "Tsang-Tsze 
said,  '  There  are  three  degrees  of  filial  piety.    The 


160  The  Superior  Man 

highest  is  being  a  credit  to  our  parents;  the  next 
is  not  disgracing  them;  and  the  lowest  is  merely 
being  able  to  support  them.'"  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi., 
sect,  ii.,  9.) 

Thus  in  the  "Li  Ki"  the  nature  of  filial  piety 
toward  living  parents  is  indicated.  Much  the 
same  is  yet  more  urgently  inculcated  in  another 
passage  from  the  same  book :  "  He  should  not  forget 
his  parents  in  the  utterance  of  a  single  word  and 
therefore  an  evil  word  will  not  issue  from  his 
mouth  and  an  angry  word  will  not  react  upon 
himself.  Not  to  disgrace  himself  and  not  to  cause 
shame  to  his  parents  may  be  called  filial  duty." 
(Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  14.) 

The  duty  to  support  parents  is  in  the  "Li  Ki" 
enjoined  in  these  sweeping  terms:  "While  his 
parents  are  alive,  a  son  should  not  dare  to  con- 
sider his  wealth  his  own  nor  hold  it  for  his  own 
use  only."     (Bk.  xxvii.,  30.) 

Mencius  has  it:  "I  have  heard  that  the  superior 
man  will  not  for  all  the  world  be  niggardly  toward 
his  parents."     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  vii.,  v.  5.) 

In  the  "Hsiao  King"  the  sacrifice  of  personal 
comforts  is  commanded  as  necessary  for  even  the 
lowest  order  of  filial  piety:  "They  are  careful  in 
their  conduct  and  economical  in  their  expenditures, 
in  order  to  nourish  their  parents.  This  is  the 
filial  piety  of  the  common  people."     (C.  vi.) 

Confucius  was  not  wholly  satisfied  with  this 
even  as  a  statement  of  the  duty  of  ordinary  people. 
He  deemed  reverence,  love,  and  obedience  equally 


The  Family  161 

necessary  in  order  that  there  might  truly  be  a 
sentiment  of  pious  regard  and  not  a  mere  counter- 
feit of  it.  This  colloquy  taken  from  the  "Ana- 
lects" illustrates  his  position:  "Tsze-hea  asked 
what  filial  piety  is.  The  Master  said,  'If,  when 
their  elders  have  burdensome  duties,  the  young 
take  the  toil  off  them,  and  if,  when  the  young  have 
wine  and  food,  they  set  them  before  their  elders, 
is  this  to  be  deemed  filial  piety?'"  (Analects, 
bk.  ii.,  c.  viii.) 

Again,  in  replying  to  the  inquiry  of  another 
disciple,  he  refers  to  this  as  follows:  "Tsze-yew 
asked  what  filial  piety  is.  The  Master  said,  'The 
filial  piety  of  nowadays  means  the  support  of  one's 
parents.  But  dogs  and  horses  likewise  are  able 
to  do  something  in  the  way  of  support;  without 
reverence,  what  is  there  to  distinguish  the  one 
support  from  the  other?'"  (Analects,  bk.  ii., 
c.  vii.) 

And  to  the  query  of  yet  another  disciple  he 
responded:  "It  is  not  being  disobedient."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  ii.,  c.  v.,  v.  i.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  same  idea  is  put  thus,  in- 
volving both  instant  obedience  and  sincere  respect : 
"When  his  father  or  his  teacher  calls,  he  should 
not  merely  say  'Yes'  but  also  rise."  (Bk.  i., 
pt.  iii.,  c.  iii.,  v.  14.) 

Yet  mere  obedience  is  not  enough  and  there 
are  not  failing  instances  when  neither  obedience 
nor  respect  should  restrain  the  son  from  remon- 
strating; as  it  is  said  in  the  "Hsiao  King":  "When 


1 62  The  Superior  Man 

unrighteous  conduct  is  concerned,  a  son  must  by 
no  means  refrain  from  remonstrating  with  his 
father  nor  a  minister  from  remonstrating  with  his 
ruler.  Since,  then,  remonstrance  is  required  in 
the  case  of  unrighteous  conduct,  how  can  mere 
obedience  to  a  father  be  accounted  filial  piety ?" 
(C.  xv.) 

And  in  the  "Analects,"  Confucius  lays  down 
the  true  rule  of  action  in  the  following:  "In  serv- 
ing his  parents,  a  son  may  remonstrate  with  them, 
but  gently;  when  he  sees  that  they  are  not  dis- 
posed to  acquiesce,  he  should  show  increased 
reverence  but  not  give  up ;  and,  should  they  punish 
him,  he  ought  not  to  murmur."     (Bk.  iv.,  c.  xviii.) 

Remonstrance  may  not,  however,  be  carried  to 
excess  and  certainly  not  to  such  excess  as  is  in- 
volved in  exposing  a  father's  shortcomings  to  the 
eyes  of  others  or  crying  aloud  his  shame;  for  the 
"Li  Ki"  represents  Confucius  to  declare,  in  con- 
formity also  with  other  sayings  elsewhere:  "The 
Master  said,  '  The  superior  man  will  overlook  and 
not  magnify  the  errors  of  his  father  and  will  show  his 
veneration  for  his  excellences. ' "   (Bk.  xxvii.,  v.  17.) 

Mencius,  apparently,  would  yet  further  limit 
the  right  of  the  son  to  reprove;  indeed,  he  would 
all  but  destroy  it  for  he  says :  "To  urge  one  another 
to  what  is  good  by  reproof  is  the  way  of  friends. 
But  between  father  and  son  reproof  is  the  great- 
est offence  against  that  tenderness  which  should 
subsist."     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xxx.,  v.  4.) 

In  the  same  connexion,  Mencius  says:  "There 


The  Family  163 

are  five  things  which  are  commonly  recognized 
to  be  unfilial.  The  first  is  laziness  about  employing 
legs  and  arms,  resulting  in  failure  to  support 
parents.  The  second,  gambling  and  chess-playing 
and  fondness  for  wine,  with  the  same  result. 
The  third,  prizing  goods  and  money  and  selfish 
devotion  to  wife  and  children,  with  the  same  result. 
The  fourth,  giving  way  to  the  temptations  that 
assail  one's  eyes  and  ears,  thus  bringing  his  parents 
to  shame.  The  fifth,  reckless  bravery,  fighting 
and  quarrelling,  endangering  thereby  the  happi- 
ness and  the  support  of  one's  parents."  (Bk.  iv., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  xxx.,  v.  2.) 

Mencius  also  relates  an  extravagant  but  obvi- 
ously apocryphal  story  of  the  filial  piety  of  Shun, 
who  however  married  without  notifying  his  un- 
forgiving parents,  which  act  Mencius  thus  defends: 
"  If  he  had  informed  them,  he  would  not  have  been 
permitted  to  marry.  That  male  and  female  should 
dwell  together  is  the  greatest  of  all  human  rela- 
tions. Had  he  informed  his  parents,  he  must  have 
missed  this  greatest  of  human  relations  and  thereby 
have  incurred  their  just  resentment.  Therefore 
was  it  that  he  did  not  inform  them."  (Bk.  v., 
pt.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  1.) 

This  is  also  quite  in  keeping  with  another  clever 
saying  of  Mencius,  which  likewise  embodies  an 
ethical  principle  much  insisted  upon  in  China: 
"There  are  three  things  which  are  unfilial  and 
to  have  no  posterity  is  the  greatest  of  them." 
(Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xxvi.,  v.  I.) 


164  The  Superior  Man 

Even  in  filial  piety,  more  is  not  required  of  any 
man  than  he  is  able  to  do.  Thus  in  the  "Ana- 
lects" it  is  related:  "Tsze-hea  said,  'If  a  man  .  .  . 
in  serving  his  parents  exert  his  utmost  strength 
.  .  .  although  men  say  that  he  has  not  learned, 
I  shall  certainly  say  that  he  has.' "     (Bk.  i.,  c.  vii.) 

In  another  place  the  test  is  made  this:  Does  the 
general  judgment  of  the  son's  treatment  of  his 
parents  coincide  with  their  report — always  sure 
to  be  favourable,  no  matter  how  he  wrongs  them? 
It  runs  thus:  "Filial  indeed  is  Min  Tsze-K'een! 
Other  people  say  nothing  of  him  different  from  the 
report  of  his  parents  and  brothers."  (Analects, 
bk.  xi.,  c.  iii.) 

King  Wu  is  quoted  in  the  "Shu  King"  as  con- 
demning unfilial  and  unfraternal  behaviour  in  no 
uncertain  terms  as  follows:  "Oh  Fang,  such  great 
criminals  are  greatly  abhorred,  and  how  much  more 
the  unfilial  and  unbrotherly !  As  the  son  who  does 
not  reverently  discharge  his  duty  to  his  father  but 
greatly  wounds  his  father's  heart;  and  the  father 
who  cannot  love  his  son  but  hates  him;  as  the 
younger  brother  who  does  not  regard  the  manifest 
will  of  Heaven  and  refuses  to  respect  his  elder 
brother  and  the  elder  brother  who  does  not  think 
of  the  toil  of  their  parents  in  bringing  up  their 
children  and  hates  his  younger  brother."  (Pt.  v., 
bk.  ix.,  3.) 

In  the  "Analects,"  the  disciple,  Yu  Tze,  with 
feeling  declares  that  all  generous  conduct  flows 
from  filial  and  fraternal  sentiments,  saying:  "Filial 


The  Family  165 

piety  and  fraternal  submission,  are  they  not  the 
root  of  all  benevolent  actions?"    (Bk.  i.,  c.  ii.,  v.  2.) 

In  the  "Hsiao  King"  the  following  encomiums 
for  good  and  useful  traits,  flowing  plainly  out  of 
early  training  in  filial  piety,  are  heaped  upon  him 
who  has  been  truly  filial:  "He  who  serves  his 
parents,  in  a  high  situation  will  be  free  from  pride; 
in  a  low  situation,  will  be  free  from  insubordina- 
tion; and,  among  his  equals,  will  not  be  quarrel- 
some."    (C.  x.) 

Mencius  bluntly  declares  that  filial  piety  neces- 
sarily results  from  a  benevolent  spirit  and  that 
one  cannot  exist  without  the  other:  "There  never 
has  been  a  man  trained  to  benevolence  who  neg- 
lected his  parents."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  5.) 

The  assiduous,  brooding  care,  resembling  that 
of  a  mother  for  her  infant  child,  which  the  son 
is  expected  to  cultivate  as  regards  his  aging  parents, 
is  nowhere  better  illustrated  than  in  this  saying 
of  Confucius:  "The  ages  of  parents  may  by  no 
means  not  be  kept  in  the  memory,  as  an  occasion 
at  once  for  joy  and  for  fear."  (Analects,  bk.  iv., 
c.  xxi.) 

It  is  for  this  reason,  also,  i.e.,  that  in  the  hour 
of  need  he  may  be  within  call,  that  this  is  enjoined 
by  the  sage:  "While  his  parents  are  living,  a  son 
must  not  go  abroad  to  a  distance;  or,  if  he  should 
do  so,  he  must  have  a  fixed  place  to  which  he  goes." 
(Analects,  bk.  iv.,  c.  xix.) 

Pious  Observances  after  the  Death  of  Parents. 
"Filial  piety  is  seen  in  the  skilful  carrying  out  of 


1 66  The  Superior  Man 

the  wishes  of  our  forefathers  and  the  skilful 
carrying  forward  of  their  undertakings."  (Doc- 
trine of  the  Mean,  c.  xix.,  v.  2.)  "While  a  man's 
father  is  alive,  look  at  the  bent  of  his  will;  when 
his  father  is  dead,  look  at  his  conduct.  If  for 
three  years  he  does  not  alter  from  the  way  of  his 
father,  he  may  be  called  filial."  (Analects,  bk.  i., 
c.  xi.) 

These  passages  from  the  "Doctrine  of  the 
Mean"  and  the  "Analects"  enjoin  the  continu- 
ance of  filial  piety,  unabated,  after  the  demise  of 
parents. 

The  filial  piety  of  the  poor  may  not  be  more  than 
decent  burial,  with  genuine  grief  and  reverence; 
for  it  is  not  the  expenditure  or  even  the  wealth  of 
ceremony  which  constitutes  the  tribute — though 
the  absence  of  either,  if  it  can  be  afforded,  is  un- 
pardonable—but rather  the  spirit  of  real  venera- 
tion and  sorrow.  Confucius  says  of  this:  "In  the 
ceremonies  of  mourning  it  is  better  that  there  be 
deep  sorrow  than  a  minute  attention  to  observ- 
ances."    (Analects,  bk.  iii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

Mencius  gives  an  interesting  and  reasonable, 
though  scarcely  verifiable,  account  of  the  origin 
of  burial,  in  this  abiding  tenderness  for  the  authors 
of  one's  being:  "In  the  most  ancient  times  there 
were  some  who  did  not  inter  their  parents.  When 
their  parents  died,  they  took  the  bodies  up  and 
cast  them  into  some  water-channel.  Afterwards, 
when  passing  by,  they  saw  foxes  and  wildcats 
devouring  the  bodies  and  flies  and  insects  covering 


The  Family  167 

them.  The  sweat  burst  forth  upon  their  brows; 
they  looked  away,  unable  to  bear  the  sight.  For 
other  people  such  perspiration  did  not  burst  out; 
but  now  their  hearts'  emotions  affected  their 
faces  and  their  eyes.  Instantly  they  hurried 
home,  returned  with  spades  and  baskets,  and 
covered  the  bodies.  If  this  indeed  was  right,  it 
is  obvious  that  the  filial  son  and  virtuous  man, 
in  burying  his  parents,  will  behave  according  to 
propriety."     (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  v.,  v.  4.) 

This  was  advanced  by  Mencius  in  reply  to  an 
argument  by  the  philosopher  Mih,  that  there 
should  be  economical  simplicity  in  funerals  and 
burials — an  argument  often  renewed  to  this  day, 
the  constant  occasion  for  which  shows  how  univer- 
sal and  deeply  seated  is  the  sentiment  which 
provokes  expenditure  sufficient  to  afford  what  is 
deemed  a  suitable  tribute  of  affection  to  the  dead. 

A  stern  duty,  never  to  be  shirked  by  a  son,  is 
to  avenge  his  father  if  slain  by  the  hand  of  an 
enemy.  If  the  execution  of  the  criminal  law  does 
this,  well  and  good;  but  if  not,  the  responsibility 
is  on  the  son.  In  the  "Li  Ki"  it  is  put  thus:  "With 
him  who  has  slain  his  father,  a  son  should  not 
live  under  the  same  sky."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  v., 
c.  ii.,  v.  10.) 

Otherwise,  however,  the  immediate  duty  of  the 
son  is  fully  performed  by  his  grief,  by  proper  burial, 
and  the  prescribed  period  of  retirement  and  mourn- 
ing; as  it  is  said  in  the  "Hsiao  King":  "The  serv- 
ices of  love  and  reverence  to  parents  when  alive, 


168  The  Superior  Man 

and  those  of  grief  and  sorrow  for  them  when  dead 
— these  completely  discharge  the  duty  of  living 
men."     (C.  xviii.) 

This  mourning,  however,  must  be  the  genuine 
expression  of  grief,  deep  and  unassuageable ;  else 
the  slight  and  feeble  character  of  the  son's  piety 
is  apparent.  Confucius  deems  this  the  severest 
and  most  reliable  test  of  the  earnestness  and  depth 
of  filial  devotion,  saying:  "Men  may  not  have 
shown  what  is  in  them  to  the  full  extent,  and  yet 
they  will  be  found  to  do  so  on  occasion  of  mourn- 
ing for  their  parents."     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  xvii.) 

And  he  comments  upon  the  mere  show  of  it  as 
comparable  with  two  other  destructive  hypocrisies, 
as  follows:  "High  station  filled  without  indulgent 
generosity;  ceremonies  performed  without  rever- 
ence; mourning  conducted  without  sorrow — ■ 
wherewith  should  I  contemplate  such  ways?" 
(Analects,  bk.  iii.,  c.  xxvi.) 

The  period  of  mourning  for  a  father  had  been 
fixed  at  three  years — interpreted  as  twenty-seven 
months — before  the  time  of  Confucius.  The 
following  is  his  statement  about  it  and  the  reason 
for  it:  "It  is  not  till  a  child  is  three  years  old  that 
it  is  allowed  to  leave  the  arms  of  its  parents.  And 
three  years'  mourning  is  universally  observed 
throughout  the  empire."  (Analects,  bk.  xvii., 
c.  xxi.,  v.  6.) 

During  this  period  of  mourning  the  son,  if  he 
can  afford  it,  lives  retired  from  the  world,  leaving 
the  management  of  his  affairs  to  others  and  aban- 


The  Family  169 

doning  himself  to  meditation,  spiritual  com- 
munion with  the  departed,  and  grief.  He  utterly 
eschews  meanwhile  every  alleviation  of  his  sorrow, 
including  very  particularly  the  solace  of  music. 

But,  with  the  expiration  of  this  long  period  of 
retirement,  his  mourning  is  by  no  means  at  an 
end.  On  the  contrary  it  ends  only  with  life 
itself.  His  father's  name  must  not  be  spoken  in 
his  presence,  except  at  the  sacrifices  upon  the 
anniversary  of  his  death ;  and  never  without  tears. 
Thus  in  the  "Li  Ki"  it  is  said:  "The  saying  that 
the  superior  man  mourns  all  his  life  for  his  parents 
has  reference  to  the  recurrence  of  the  day  of  their 
death.  That  he  does  not  do  his  ordinary  work  on 
that  day,  does  not  mean  that  it  would  be  unpro- 
pitious  to  do  so;  it  means  that  on  that  day  his 
thoughts  are  occupied  with  them  and  he  does  not 
dare  occupy  himself,  as  on  other  days,  with  his 
private  and  personal  affairs."    (Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  i.,  5.) 

The  greatest  of  all  filial  obligations  to  deceased 
parents,  however,  is  creditable  conduct;  for  by 
that  only  can  that  which  they  have  created,  their 
son,  worthily  represent  what  they  have  sought  to 
accomplish  in  the  world  through  him.  The  con- 
sideration of  this  phase  of  the  Confucian  concep- 
tion of  filial  piety  is  most  important  since  it  is  the 
sanction  most  relied  upon  to  enforce  all  the  in- 
junctions, whether  directly  regarding  self-develop- 
ment or  its  concomitant  essential,  propriety  in 
relations  with  other  human  beings.  This  devo- 
tion both  to  living  and  to  departed  parents — the 


170  The  Superior  Man 

so-called  "ancestor  worship"  of  the  Chinese; 
it  scarcely  extends  beyond  three  generations  in 
any  case,  and  as  regards  the  lowly,  not  beyond  one 
— is  the  chief  incentive,  other  than  self-respect 
and  the  innate  desire  to  grow  and  to  become  and 
be  a  superior  human  being,  to  which  Confucius 
appeals. 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  nature  of  this  appeal  is  thus 
revealed:  "Although  his  parents  be  dead,  when  a 
son  is  inclined  to  do  what  is  good,  he  should  think 
that  he  will  thereby  transmit  the  good  name  of  his 
parents  and  so  carry  his  wish  into  effect.  When 
he  is  inclined  to  do  what  is  not  good,  he  should 
think  that  he  will  thereby  bring  disgrace  on  the 
name  of  his  parents  and  in  no  wise  carry  his  wish 
into  effect."     (Bk.  x.,  sect,  i.,  17.) 

And  in  yet  simpler  and  stronger  terms  in  this 
passage:  "When  his  parents  are  dead  and  the 
son  carefully  watches  over  his  actions  so  that  a 
bad  name  involving  his  parents  may  not  be  handed 
down,  he  may  be  said  to  be  able  to  maintain  his 
piety  to  the  end."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  12.) 

This  union  of  all  the  sentiments  which  compose 
the  piety  of  a  son  toward  his  parents,  both  while 
they  are  living  and  after  their  death,  is  set  forth 
in  these  words  in  the  same  book:  "The  superior 
man  while  his  parents  are  alive,  reverently  nour- 
ishes them;  and  when  they  are  dead,  reverently 
sacrifices  to  them.  His  chief  thought  is  how,  to 
the  end  of  life,  not  to  disgrace  them."  (Bk.  xxi., 
sect,  i.,  5.) 


The  Family  171 

And  in  the  "Shi  King,"  the  Book  of  Odes,  it  is 
thus  beautifully  phrased : 

"When  early  dawn  unseals  my  eyes, 
Before  my  mind  my  parents  rise." 

(Minor  Odes,  Decade  v.,  Ode  2,  quoted 
also  in  the  Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi.,  sect,  i.,  7.) 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  STATE 

In  logical  progression  Confucius  rises  from  a 
discussion  of  duties  toward  the  family  to  those 
toward  the  state,  which  social  organization  he  re- 
gards as  only  a  larger  household,  having  all  its  ethi- 
cal principles  founded  on  those  of  the  primary  unit. 

The  Foundation  of  Government.  ' '  This  is  meant 
by  'To  rightly  govern  the  state,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  regulate  one's  own  family.'  One  cannot 
instruct  others  who  cannot  instruct  his  own  child- 
ren. Without  going  beyond  the  family,  the  prince 
may  learn  all  the  lessons  of  statecraft,  filial  piety 
by  which  the  sovereign  is  also  served,  fraternal 
submission  by  which  older  men  and  superiors 
are  also  served,  kindness  by  which  also  the  com- 
mon people  should  be  ministered  unto."  (Great 
Learning,  c.  ix.,  v.  I.) 

"From  the  loving  example  of  one  family,  love 
extends  throughout  the  state;  from  its  courtesy, 
courtesy  extends  throughout  the  state;  while  the 
ambition  and  perverse  recklessness  of  one  man 
may  plunge  the  entire  state  into  rebellion  and 
disorder."     (Great  Learning,  c.  ix.,  v.  3.) 

172 


The  State  173 

By  these  words  in  "The  Great  Learning"  the 
position  of  the  family  as  the  foundation  of  society 
and  of  its  proper  regulation  as  the  basis  for  govern- 
ment is  dwelt  upon.  The  significance  of  this  is 
perhaps  obvious  though  not  too  familiar  in  these 
days  when  family  ties  and  family  discipline  both 
tend  to  loosen.  In  the  "Hsiao  King,"  the  appli- 
cation of  these  principles  is  adroitly  indicated  as 
follows:  "The  filial  piety  with  which  the  superior 
man  serves  his  parents  may  be  transferred  as 
loyalty  to  the  ruler ;  the  fraternal  duty  with  which 
he  serves  his  elder  brother  may  be  transferred  as 
deference  to  elders;  his  regulation  of  his  family 
may  be  transferred  as  good  government  in  any 
official  position."     (C.  xiv.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  same  results  are  deduced 
from  the  three  primary  human  functions  and  duties 
as  there  set  forth:  "Husband  and  wife  have  their 
separate  functions;  between  father  and  son  there 
should  be  affection;  between  ruler  and  minister 
there  should  be  strict  application  to  their  respec- 
tive duties.  If  these  three  relations  be  rightly 
discharged,  all  other  things  will  follow."  (Bk. 
xxiv.,  8.) 

The  strictly  practical  character  also  of  this 
application  is  revealed  by  this  saying  of  Yu  Tze 
concerning  the  fount  of  orderly  behaviour  on  the 
part  of  the  citizen:  "They  are  few  who,  being 
filial  and  fraternal,  are  fond  of  offending  against 
their  superiors.  There  have  been  none  who,  not 
liking  to  offend  against  their  superiors,  have  been 


174  The  Superior  Man 

fond  of  stirring  up  confusion."  (Analects,  bk.  i., 
c.  ii.,  v.  I.) 

To  support  and  elucidate  this  view,  also,  Con- 
fucius cites  the  Book  of  Odes  saying:  "From  them 
you  learn  the  more  immediate  duty  of  serving 
one's  father  and  the  remoter  one  of  serving  one's 
prince."     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  ix.,  v.  6.) 

And  again  he  cites  and  even  quotes  the  "Shu 
King"  to  show  the  immediate  and  causal  relation 
between  the  exercise  of  filial  and  fraternal  piety 
and  the  establishment  of  government  upon  a 
sound  and  secure  foundation:  "What  does  the 
'Shu  King'  say  of  filial  piety?  'You  are  filial, 
you  discharge  your  fraternal  duties.  These  quali- 
ties are  displayed  in  government.  This,  then, 
also  constitutes  the  exercise  of  government.'" 
(Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xxi.,  v.  2.) 

The  Function  of  Government.  "To  govern 
means  to  rectify."     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xvii.) 

This  from  the  "Analects"  is  repeated  with 
greater  particularity  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  accompanied 
by  a  lesson  which  the  Chinese  sages,  who  were 
almost  invariably  the  instructors  of  princes,  never 
wearied  of  insisting  upon,  thus:  "Government  is 
rectification.  When  the  ruler  does  right,  all  men 
will  imitate  his  self-control.  What  the  ruler  does, 
the  people  will  follow.  How  should  they  follow 
him  in  what  he  does  not  do?"     (Bk.  xxiv.,  7.)     v 

This  also,  in  the  passage  from  the  "Analects" 
just  now  quoted  from,  is  similarly  explained  by 
Confucius,  thus:  "Ke  K'ang  Tze  asked  Confucius 


The  State  175 

about  government.  Confucius  replied, '  To  govern 
means  to  rectify.  If  you  lead  with  correctness, 
who  will  dare  not  to  be  correct?'"  (Bk.  xii., 
c.  xvii.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  sentiment  is  expressed: 
"As  men  are  constituted,  the  thing  most  impor- 
tant to  them  is  government."     (Bk.  xxiv.,  6.) 

This  refers,  of  course,  to  its  indispensable  office 
of  rectification;  and  its  importance  is  vividly  il- 
lustrated by  Mencius  in  the  following  passage, 
which  also  points  out  the  normal  play  of  cause  and 
effect  in  the  operation  of  government  upon  men's 
characters:  "When  right  government  prevails  in 
the  empire,  men  of  little  virtue  submit  to  those 
of  great  virtue  and  men  of  little  worth  to  those 
of  great  worth.  When  bad  government  prevails 
in  the  empire,  men  of  little  power  submit  to  those 
of  great  power  and  the  weak  to  the  strong.  Both 
are  in  accord  with  divine  law."  (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i., 
c.  vii.,  v.  1.) 

The  mode — or,  rather,  one  of  the  simpler  and 
more  obvious  modes — by  which  this  may  be 
accomplished,  Confucius  indicates  in  this  saying: 
"Employ  the  upright  and  put  aside  the  crooked; 
in  this  way,  the  crooked  may  be  made  to  be  up- 
right."    (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxii.,  v.  3.) 

And  that,  in  order  that  government  may  be 
stable,  not  to  say  benign,  this  course  must  per- 
force be  followed,  he  inculcates  in  this  colloquy: 
"The  duke  Gae  asked,  saying:  'What  should  be 
done  in  order  to   secure   the   submission  of   the 


176  The  Superior  Man 

people?'  Confucius  replied,  'Advance  the  up- 
right and  set  aside  the  crooked,  then  the  people 
will  submit.  Advance  the  crooked  and  set  aside 
the  upright,  then  the  people  will  not  submit.'" 
(Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xix.) 

Government  Exists  for  the  Benefit  of  the  Gov- 
erned. "The  duke  of  She  asked  about  govern- 
ment. The  Master  said,  'Good  government 
obtains  when  those  who  are  near  are  made  happy, 
and  those  who  are  far  are  attracted.'"  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xiii.,  c.  xvi.) 

This  Mencius  reiterated  in  this  direct  fashion: 
"The  people  are  the  most  important  element; 
.  .  .  the  sovereign,  least  important."  (Bk.  vii., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  xiv.,  v.  1.) 

The  "Li  Ki"  quotes  the  "Book  of  Poetry"  as 
saying  that  government  is  fraternal  and  parental 
— rather  than  paternal,  in  the  offensive  sense 
usually  attached  to  that  word  when  applied  to 
government — thus : 

"The  happy  and  gracious  sovereign 
Is  the  father  and  mother  of  the  people." 

(Bk.  xxvi.,  I.) 

And  perhaps  even  more  strikingly: 

"When  among  any  of  the  people  there  was  a  death, 
I  crawled  upon  my  knees  to  help  them." 

(Bk.  xxvi.,  3.) 

This,  moreover,  is  not  wholly  sentimentalism ; 
for  with  much  practical  force  Confucius  says: 


The  State  177 

"  Therefore,  if  remoter  people  are  not  submissive, 
all  the  influences  of  civil  culture  and  virtue  are 
to  be  cultivated  to  attract  them  to  be  so;  and 
when  they  have  been  so  attracted,  they  must  be 
made  contented  and  tranquil. 

"'Now  here  are  you,  Yew  and  K'ew,  assisting 
your  chief.  Remoter  people  are  not  submissive 
and,  with  your  help,  he  cannot  attract  them  to 
him.  In  his  own  territory,  there  are  divisions  and 
downfalls,  leavings  and  separations,  and,  with 
your  help,  he  cannot  preserve  it.  And  yet  he 
is  planning  these  hostile  movements  within  our 
state.'"      (Analects,    bk.   xvi.,    c.    i.;   v.    11,    12, 

13.) 

The  hard-headed,  severely  practical  Mencius, 
who  about  a  century  later  exemplified  in  govern- 
mental theories  so  many  of  the  most  valuable  of 
the  principles  laid  down  by  Confucius,  gives  this 
yet  more  concrete  form  in  these  words:  "If  the 
seasons  of  husbandry  be  not  interfered  with,  the 
grain  will  be  more  than  can  be  eaten.  If  close 
nets  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the  pools  and  ponds, 
the  fishes  and  turtles  will  be  more  than  can  be 
consumed.  If  the  axes  and  bills  enter  the  hills 
and  forests  only  at  the  proper  time,  the  wood  will 
be  more  than  can  be  used.  When  the  grain  and 
fish  and  turtles  are  more  than  can  be  eaten  and 
there  is  more  wood  than  can  be  used,  this  enables 
the  people  to  nourish  their  living  and  bury  their 
dead,  without  any  feeling  against  any.  This 
condition,  in  which  the  people  nourish  their  living 


178  The  Superior  Man 

and  bury  their  dead,  is  the  first  step  in  kingly 
government."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  v.  3.) 

The  foregoing  precedent,  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years  old,  for  modern  agricultural  depart- 
ments and  experiment  stations  and  yet  more 
recently  instituted  and  still  suspiciously  regarded 
conservation  movements  is  sufficiently  startling; 
but  Mencius  goes  far  beyond  that,  as,  for  instance, 
when  he  says  to  King  Seuen  of  Ts'e:  "Therefore 
an  intelligent  ruler  will  regulate  the  livelihood  of 
the  people,  so  as  to  make  sure  that  they  shall  have 
sufficient  wherewith  to  serve  their  parents  and/ 
also  sufficient  wherewith  to  support  their  wives 
and  children."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vii.,  v.  21.)     v 

This  picture  of  the  blessings  of  a  truly  bene- 
ficent government  and  of  its  attractions,  when 
accompanied  by  widespread  prosperity  of  families, 
has  been  so  recently  presented  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  to  which  within  three  or  four  genera- 
tions the  needy  and  oppressed  have  thronged  to 
make  it  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  nations,  that  it 
is  surely  worth  while  farther  to  exhibit  the  views 
of  this  later  Chinese  sage  upon  this  subject:  "Now 
if  Your  Majesty  will  institute  a  government  whose 
action  will  all  be  benevolent,  this  will  cause  all 
the  officers  in  the  empire  to  wish  to  stand  in  Your 
Majesty's  court,  and  the  farmers  all  to  wish  to 
plough  in  Your  Majesty's  fields,  and  the  merchants, 
both  travelling  and  stationary,  all  to  wish  to  have 
their  goods  in  Your  Majesty's  market-places,  and 
travelling   strangers   all   to   wish   to   make   their 


The  State  179 

tours  on  Your  Majesty's  roads,  and  all  throughout 
the  empire  who  feel  aggrieved  by  their  rulers,  to 
wish  to  come  and  complain  to  Your  Majesty. 
And  when  they  are  so  bent,  who  can  hold  them 
back?"     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vii.,  v.  18.) 

The  folly  of  the  contrary  policy  and  the  office 
which  it  has  performed  in  causing  immigration 
into  countries  which  are  well-governed,  that  is, 
governed  in  the  interests  of  the  people,  Mencius 
expatiates  upon  as  follows:  "Now  among  the 
shepherds  of  men  throughout  the  empire,  there  is 
not  one  who  does  not  find  pleasure  in  killing  men. 
If  there  were  one  who  did  not  find  pleasure  in 
killing  men,  all  the  people  in  the  empire  would 
look  towards  him  with  outstretched  necks.  Such 
being  indeed  the  case,  the  people  would  flock  to 
him,  as  water  flows  downward  with  a  rush,  which 
no  one  can  repress."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vi.,  v.  6.) 

In  "The  Great  Learning"  it  is  put  thus,  senten- 
tiously:  "To  centralize  wealth  is  to  disperse  the 
people;  to  distribute  wealth  is  to  collect  the  people." 

(C.x.,  v.  9.)/ 

And  in  the  "Li  Ki"  Confucius  is  reported  as 
saying:  "With  the  ancients,  in  their  government 
the  love  of  men  was  the  great  point."     (Bk.  xxiv., 

9-) 

Mencius    erected    his    advanced    and    detailed 

propositions   concerning   good   government   upon 

benevolence  or  the  love  of  men,  in  an  age  when 

discussions  concerning  first  principles,  like  "Love 

thine  enemies!"  over  against  "Be  just  to  thine 


180  The  Superior  Man 

enemies  and  reserve  love  for  friends!"  had  given 
way  to  discussions  of  applied  principles,  like 
Tolstoian  individualism  or  communism.  Accord- 
ingly Mencius,  addressing  princes  as  their  tutor, 
admonished  them,  saying:  "Let  benevolent  govern- 
ment be  put  in  practice  and  the  people  will  be 
delighted  with  it,  as  if  they  were  relieved  from 
hanging  by  their  heels."     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  13.) 

And  with  this  in  another  place  he  coupled  an 
inducement  and  a  promise,  thus:  "If  you  will  put 
benevolence  in  practice  in  your  government,  your 
people  will  love  you  and  all  in  authority,  and  will 
be  ready  to  die  for  them."  (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xii., 
v.  3-) 

This  has  been  said  in  the  "Analects"  in  another 
way  and  with  a  warning  as  well  as  a  promise,  in 
these  words:  "If  the  people  have  plenty,  their 
prince  will  not  be  left  to  want  alone.  If  the  people 
are  in  want,  their  prince  will  not  be  able  to  enjoy 
plenty  alone."     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  ix.,  v.  4.) 

The  responsibility  for  evil  conditions,  also, 
Confucius  fastens  unescapably  upon  the  corrupt 
or  incompetent  administrator  who  seeks  to  profit 
and  enjoy,  not  as  a  reward  for  genuine  service  of 
his  people,  but  because,  in  effect  if  not  by  design, 
he  has  despoiled  them.  This  is  his  scathing  de- 
nunciation of  such  rulers:  "How  can  he  be  used 
as  a  guide  to  a  blind  man  who  does  not  support 
him  when  tottering  or  raise  him  up  when  fallen? 
And  further,  you  speak  wrongly.  When  a  tiger 
or  a  wild  bull  escapes  from  his  cage,  when  a  tor- 


The  State  181 

toise  or  gem  is  injured  in  its  repository— whose  is 
the  fault?"     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  i.,  v.  6,  7.) 

The  heartless  suggestions  regarding  the  unfor- 
tunate of  earth's  children,  which  are  often  brought 
forward  on  pseudo-scientific  grounds,  find  no 
welcome  in  the  breast  of  the  sage,  as  this  will  show: 
"Ke  K'ang  Tse  asked  Confucius  about  govern- 
ment, saying,  'What  do  you  say  to  killing  the 
unprincipled  for  the  good  of  the  principled?' 
Confucius  replied,  '  Sir,  in  carrying  on  your  govern- 
ment, why  should  you  use  killing  at  all?  Let 
your  desires  be  shown  to  be  for  what  is  good,  and 
the  people  will  be  good.  The  relation  between 
superiors  and  inferiors  is  like  that  between  the 
wind  and  the  grass ;  the  grass  must  bend  when  the 
wind  blows  across  it.'"  (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c. 
xix.) 

The  "Analects"  enjoin,  instead,  infinite  mercy 
and  commiseration  for  the  human  wrecks  into 
which  evil  government  distorts  our  common 
human  nature,  as  in  this  passage,  quoting  the 
philosopher  Tsang,  with  manifest  approval:  "The 
chief  of  the  Mang  family  having  appointed  Yang 
Foo  to  be  chief  criminal  judge,  the  latter  consulted 
the  philosopher  Tsang.  Tsang  said,  'The  rulers 
have  failed  in  their  duties  and  the  people  conse- 
quently have  been  disorganized  for  a  long  time. 
When  you  have  found  out  the  truth  about  any 
accusation,  be  grieved  over  it,  pity  the  malefactor, 
and  take  no  pride  in  your  superior  discernment. 
(Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  xix.) 


1 82  The  Superior  Man 

And  in  the  "Shu  King,"  the  ancient  worthy, 
Pan-Kang,  is  represented  to  have  said:  "Do  not 
despise  the  old  and  experienced  and  do  not  make 
little  of  the  helpless  and  young."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  vii 
2.) 

It  is  to  fidelity  to  this  fundamental  principle 
of  correct  government,  i.e.,  that  it  was  instituted 
and  maintained  for  the  benefit  of  the  governed, 
and  to  the  correlate  principles  by  which  it  may  be 
so  applied,  that  Confucius  refers  when  he  says: 
"When  right  principles  prevail  in  the  empire, 
there  will  be  no  controversies  among  the  common 
people."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  ii.,  v.  3.) 

The  true  requisite  for  the  attainment  of  anti- 
poverty  aspirations,  namely,  that  the  poor  be  not 
despoiled,  and  thus  all  things  be  turned  topsy- 
turvy in  the  state,  Confucius  sets  forth  in  the 
"Analects":  "When  the  people  keep  their  respec- 
tive places,  there  will  be  no  poverty;  when  har- 
mony prevails,  there  will  be  no  scarcity  of  people; 
when  there  is  repose,  there  will  be  no  rebellions."' 
(Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  i.,  v.  10.) 

The  view  of  the  immediate  disciples  of  Confucius 
as  to  what  a  well-governed  country  would  look 
like,  as  well  as  their  confidence  that  their  great 
teacher  could  have  realized  it,  had  he  been  in- 
vested with  the  sovereignty,  are  announced  in  these 
burning  sentences:  "Were  our  Master  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  prince  of  a  state  or  the  chief  of  a  family, 
we  should  find  this  description  verified:  He  would 
plant  the  people  and  forthwith  they  would  be 


The  State  183 

established;  he  would  lead  them  and  forthwith 
they  would  follow  him ;  he  would  make  them  happy 
and  forthwith  multitudes  would  resort  to  his  do- 
minions ;  he  would  cheer  them  and  forthwith  they 
would  become  harmonious.  While  he  lived,  he 
would  be  glorious.  When  he  died,  he  would  be 
bitterly  lamented."     (Analects,  bk.  xix.,  c.  xxv., 

v.  4-) 

The  Essentials  of  Good  Government.  "Tsze- 
kung  asked  about  government.  The  Master 
said,  'The  requisites  of  government  are  that  there 
be  sufficiency  of  food,  sufficiency  of  military 
equipment,  and  the  confidence  of  the  people  in 
their  ruler. ' 

"Tsze-kung  said,  'If  it  cannot  be  helped  and 
one  of  these  must  be  dispensed  with,  which  of  the 
three  should  be  forgone  first?'  'The  military 
equipment, '  said  the  Master. 

"Tsze-kung  again  asked,  '  If  it  cannot  be  helped 
and  one  of  the  remaining  two  must  be  dispensed 
with,  which  of  them  should  be  forgone?'  The 
Master  answered,  'Part  with  the  food.  From  of 
old  death  has  been  the  lot  of  all  men;  but  if  the 
people  have  not  confidence  in  their  rulers,  there 
is  no  stability  for  the  state. ' "  (Analects,  bk.  xii., 
c.  vii.) 

The  manner  in  which  the  confidence  so  discussed 
in  the  "Analects"  may  be  gained  and  held  is 
variously  described  but  perhaps  never  more  aptly 
than  in  this  passage  from  "The  Great  Learning": 

"On  this  account,  the  ruler  will  first  take  pains 


184  The  Superior  Man 

about  his  own  virtue.  Possessing  virtue,  he  will 
win  the  people.  Possessing  the  people,  he  will  win 
the  realm.  Possessing  the  realm,  he  will  command 
revenue.  Possessing  revenue,  he  will  have  resources 
for  all  demands. 

"Virtue  is  the  root;  ample  revenue  the  fruit. 

"If  he  make  the  root  secondary  and  the  fruit 
the  prime  object,  he  will  but  wrangle  with  his 
people  and  teach  them  rapine."     (C.  x.,  v.  6,  7,  8.) 

In  the  "Analects,"  also,  it  is  remarked:  "The 
superior  man,  having  obtained  their  confidence, 
may  impose  tasks  upon  the  people.  If  he  have 
not  gained  their  confidence,  they  will  deem  his 
acts  oppressive."     (Bk.  xix.,  c.  x.) 

Mencius,  however,  much  more  circumstantially 
describes  the  essentials  of  a  worthy  government 
in  a  tribute  to  the  glorious  rule  of  King  Wan,  in 
these  words: 

"The  king  said,  'May  I  hear  from  you  what  the 
truly  kingly  government  is?' 

"'Formerly,'  was  the  reply,  'King  Wan's  gov- 
ernment of  K'e  was  as  follows:  Farmers  culti- 
vated one  ninth  of  the  land  for  the  government; 
descendants  of  government  servants  were  pen- 
sioned; at  the  passes  and  in  the  markets,  strangers 
were  inspected,  but  goods  were  not  taxed;  there 
were  no  prohibitions  respecting  the  ponds  and 
weirs;  the  wives  and  children  of  criminals  were 
not  involved  in  their  guilt.  There  were  old  widow- 
ers, old  widows,  old  bachelors  and  maidens, 
fatherless  or  orphan  children; — these  four  classes 


The  State  185 

are  the  most  destitute  of  the  people  and  have 
none  to  whom  they  can  tell  their  wants;  and  King 
Wan,  in  the  institution  of  his  government  with 
its  benevolent  influence,  made  them  the  first 
objects  of  his  regard. '  "     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  v.,  v.  3.) 

The  benign  consequences  of  beneficent  rule 
and  the  confidence  and  willing  obedience  of  the 
people  when  the  ruler  is  worthy  of  it,  Mencius 
sets  forth  thus:  "It  is  said  in  the  Book  of  History, 
that  as  soon  as  Tang  began  his  work  of  executing 
justice,  he  commenced  with  Ko.  The  whole 
empire  had  confidence  in  him.  When  he  pursued 
his  work  in  the  east,  the  rude  tribes  on  the  west 
murmured.  So  did  those  on  the  north  when  he 
was  engaged  in  the  south.  The  cry  was, — 'Why 
does  he  leave  us  until  the  last?'  The  people 
looked  unto  him  as  when  looking  in  time  of  severe 
drought  to  clouds  and  rainbows.  The  men  of 
the  markets  stopped  not,  the  husbandmen  did  not 
turn  from  their  labours.  He  blessed  the  people 
as  he  punished  their  rulers.  It  was  like  an  oppor- 
tune shower  and  the  people  rejoiced."  (Bk.  i., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  xi.,    v.  2.) 

How  he  responded  to  King  Seuen  of  Ts'e  about 
the  means  of  securing  this  limitless  confidence  of 
the  people  is  thus  recorded:  "The  King  said, 
'  What  virtue  must  there  be  in  order  to  the  attain- 
ment of  imperial  sway?'  Mencius  replied,  'The 
love  and  protection  of  the  people ;  with  this,  there 
is  no  power  which  can  prevent  a  ruler  from  at- 
taining it.'"     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vii.,  v.  3.) 


1 86  The  Superior  Man 

In  "  Shuo  Yuan  "  (bk.  xi.),  Yen  Yuan  says:  "I 
wish  to  have  a  wise  king  or  a  sage  ruler  and  to 
become  his  minister.  I  should  cause  there  to  be 
no  reason  to  repair  the  city  walls,  the  moats  and 
ditches  to  be  crossed  by  no  foeman,  and  the  swords 
and  spears  to  be  melted  into  tools  of  agriculture. 
I  should  cause  the  whole  world  to  have  no  calamity 
of  warfare  anywhere  for  thousands  of  years,"  and 
Confucius  is  reported  to  have  said,  "What  I  wish 
is  the  plan  of  the  son  of  Yen." 

In  the  "Great  Model,"  however,  Confucius 
yet  more  clearly  sets  forth  the  utilitarian  basis  of 
all  government,  asserting  that  it  is  instituted 
among  men  to  secure  for  them  the  five  blessings 
and  secure  them  against  the  six  calamities.  The 
five  blessings  are:  Ample  means,  long  life,  health, 
virtuous  character,  and  an  agreeable  personal 
appearance;  the  six  calamities,  early  death,  sick- 
ness, misery,  poverty,  a  repulsive  appearance,  and 
weakness. 

Certainly  these,  as  objects  to  be  attained  by 
civil  government,  embrace  all  that  even  the  most 
enlightened  peoples  of  modern  times  aim  at,  hope 
for,  and  struggle  to  achieve. 

In  the  "  History  of  Han  "  (chap,  xci.),  Pan  Ku 
gives  the  following  account,  strangely  applicable  to 
our  own  day,  of  the  consequences  of  the  perversion 
of  government  to  the  enrichment  of  the  few  and 
the  impoverishment  of  the  many:  "Under  the  in- 
fluence of  luxury  and  extravagance,  the  students 
and  the  common  people  all  disregarded  the  regula- 


The  State  187 

tions  and  neglected  the  primary  occupation. 
The  number  of  farmers  decreased,  and  that  of 
merchants  increased.  Grain  was  insufficient,  but 
luxurious  goods  were  plenty.  After  the  age  of 
Duke  Huan  of  Ch'i  and  Duke  Wen  and  Tsin, 
moral  character  was  greatly  corrupted,  and  social 
order  was  confused.  Each  state  had  a  different 
political  system,  and  each  family  had  different 
customs.  The  physical  desires  were  uncontrolled, 
and  extravagant  consumption  and  social  usurpa- 
tion had  no  end.  Therefore,  the  merchant  trans- 
ported goods  which  were  difficult  to  obtain;  the 
artisans  produced  articles  which  had  no  practical 
use;  and  the  student  practised  ways  which  were 
contrary  to  orthodoxy;  all  of  them  pursued  the 
temporary  fashion  for  the  getting  of  money.  The 
hypocritical  people  turned  away  from  truth  in 
order  to  make  fame,  and  guilty  men  ran  risks  in 
order  to  secure  profit.  While  those  who  took  the 
states  by  the  deed  of  usurpation  or  regicide  be- 
came kings  or  dukes,  the  men  who  founded  their 
rich  families  by  robbery  became  heroes.  Moral- 
ity could  not  control  the  gentlemen,  and  punish- 
ment could  not  make  the  common  people  afraid. 
Among  the  rich,  the  wood  and  earth  wore  em- 
broidery, and  the  dog  and  horse  had  a  superabun- 
dance of  meat  and  grain.  But,  among  the  poor, 
even  the  coarsest  clothes  could  not  be  completed ; 
beans  made  their  food  and  water  was  their  drink. 
Although  they  were  all  in  the  same  rank  of  com- 
mon people,  the  rich,  by  the  power  of  wealth,  raised 


188  The  Superior  Man 

themselves  to  kings,  while  the  others,  although 
their  actual  condition  was  slavery  and  imprison- 
ment, had  no  angry  appearance.  Therefore, 
those  who  were  deceitful  and  criminal  were  com- 
fortable and  proud  in  the  world,  but  those  who 
held  principles  and  followed  reason  could  not 
escape  hunger  and  cold.  Such  an  influence  came 
from  the  government,  because  there  was  no  regu- 
lation to  control  the  economic  life." 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  Confucius  lays  bare  the  cause 
which  creates  such  consequences,  thus:  "The 
small  man,  when  poor,  feels  the  pinch  of  his 
straitened  circumstances;  and  when  rich,  is  liable 
to  become  proud.  Under  the  pinch  of  that  pov- 
erty, he  may  proceed  to  steal;  and  when  proud, 
he  may  proceed  to  deeds  of  disorder.  The  social 
rules  recognize  these  feelings  of  men,  and  lay 
down  definite  regulations  for  them,  to  serve  as 
preventions  for  the  people.  Hence,  when  the 
sages  distributed  riches  and  honours,  they  made 
the  rich  not  have  power  enough  to  be  proud ;  and 
kept  the  poor  from  being  pinched  and  the  honour- 
able men  not  be  intractable  to  those  above  them. 
In  this  way  the  causes  of  disorder  would  more  and 
more  disappear."     (Bk.  xxvii.,  2.) 

And  Tung  Chung-Shu  says  of  these  conditions: 
"It  is  said  by  Confucius,  'We  are  not  troubled 
with  fears  of  poverty,  but  are  troubled  with  fears 
of  a  lack  of  equality  of  wealth. '  Therefore,  when 
there  is  here  a  concentration  of  wealth,  there 
must  be  an  emptiness  there.     Great  riches  make 


The  State  189 

the  people  proud;  and  great  poverty  makes  them 
wretched.  When  they  are  wretched,  they  would 
become  robbers;  when  they  are  proud,  they  would 
become  oppressors;  it  is  human  nature.  From 
the  nature  of  the  average  man,  the  sages  discov- 
ered the  origin  of  disorder.  Therefore,  when  they 
established  social  laws  and  divided  up  the  social 
orders,  they  made  the  rich  able  to  show  their 
distinction  without  being  proud,  and  the  poor  able 
to  make  their  living  without  misery;  this  was  the 
standard  for  the  equalization  of  society.  In  this 
way,  wealth  was  sufficient,  and  the  high  and  low 
classes  were  peaceful.  Hence,  society  was  easily 
governed  well.  In  the  present  day,  the  regulations 
are  abandoned,  so  that  everyone  pursues  what  he 
wants.  As  human  wants  have  no  limit,  the  whole 
society  becomes  indulgent  without  end.  The 
great  men  of  the  high  class,  notwithstanding  they 
have  great  fortune,  lament  the  insufficiency  of 
their  wealth;  while  the  small  people  of  the  lower 
classes  are  depressed.  Therefore,  the  rich  in- 
crease in  eagerness  for  money,  and  do  not  wish 
to  do  good  with  it;  while  the  poor  violate 
the  laws  every  day,  and  nothing  can  stop  them. 
Hence,  society  is  difficult  to  govern  well." 
(Many  Dewdrops  of  the  Spring  and  Autumn, 
bk.  xxvii.) 

The  Nourishment  of  the  People.  "When  a 
country  is  well  governed,  poverty  and  a  mean 
condition  are  things  to  be  ashamed  of.  When  a 
country  is  ill  governed,   riches  and  honours  are 


190  The  Superior  Man 

things  to  be  ashamed  of."  (Analects,  bk.  viii., 
c.  xiii.,  v.  3.) 

The  meaning  of  this  passage  from  the  "Ana- 
lects" is,  that  the  most  important  function  of 
government  is  to  secure  the  equitable  distribution 
of  the  products  of  human  labour  to  the  end  that 
no  deserving  person  shall  suffer  want.  Obviously, 
also,  if  the  mere  acquisition  of  wealth  were,  by 
reason  of  just  conditions,  truly  a  test  of  desert, 
the  most  important  step  would  have  been  taken 
toward  the  rectification  of  men;  for  if  virtue  were 
the  only  road  to  affluence,  many  are  they  who 
would  walk  therein. 

Mencius  put  this  convincingly,  thus:  "When  a 
sage  governs  the  world,  he  will  cause  pulse  and 
grain  to  be  as  abundant  as  water  and  fire.  If 
pulse  and  grain  were  as  abundant  as  water  and 
fire,  should  the  people  be  otherwise  than  virtuous?" 
(Bk.  vii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xxiii.,  v.  3.) 

The  first  office  of  the  government  in  this  regard 
is,  of  course,  instruction;  and  it  is  interesting  to 
find  the  most  modern  of  governmental  inventions, 
an  agricultural  department  and  its  stations,  thus 
forestalled  by  Mencius:  "Let  mulberry  trees  be 
planted  about  the  homesteads  with  their  five  mow 
and  persons  of  fifty  years  may  be  clothed  with  silk. 
In  keeping  fowls,  pigs,  dogs,  and  swine,  let  not 
their  breeding  time  be  neglected  and  persons  of 
seventy  years  may  eat  flesh."  (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii., 
v.  4.) 

And  the  yet  more   recent   innovation,  conser- 


The  State  '191 

vation,  was  pronounced  a  duty  in  the  "Li  Ki" 
in  these  words:  "Where  the  wide  and  open  country- 
is  greatly  neglected  and  uncultivated,  it  speaks 
ill  for  those  in  authority."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  v., 
c.  iii.,  v.  11.) 

Both  in  its  external  relations  with  other  states 
and  peoples,  and  in  its  internal  affairs,  Confucius 
held  that  the  government  must  frown  upon  con- 
duct which  proceeds  from  sordid  motives.  It  is 
put,  briefly  and  pointedly,  in  this  saying:  "In  a 
state,  gain  is  not  to  be  considered  prosperity,  but 
its  prosperity  will  be  found  in  righteousness." 
(Great  Learning,  c.  x.,  v.  23.) 

Mencius  dwells  upon  one  phase  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  text,  in  answering  a  king  who  sought 
gain  for  his  kingdom  to  the  disadvantage  of  others, 
in  this  fashion:  "If  Your  Majesty  say,  'What  is  to 
be  done  to  profit  my  kingdom?'  the  great  officers 
will  say,  '  What  is  to  be  done  to  profit  our  families? ' 
and  the  inferior  officers  and  the  common  people 
will  say,  '  What  is  to  be  done  to  profit  us? '  Superi- 
ors and  inferiors  will  try  to  snatch  this  profit  the 
one  from  the  other  and  the  kingdom  will  be  en- 
dangered."    (Bk.  i.,  c.  i.,  v.  4.) 

The  "Li  Ki"  supplies  this  picture  of  the  demor- 
alization which  reigns  when  the  government  does 
not  restrain  the  powerful  and  the  unscrupulous : 
"The  strong  press  upon  the  weak,  the  many  are 
cruel  to  the  few,  the  knowing  impose  upon  the  dull, 
the  bold  make  it  bitter  for  the  timid,  the  sick  are 
not  nursed,  the  old  and  young,  the  orphans  and 


192  The  Superior  Man 

solitaries  are  neglected;  such  is  the  great  disorder 
that  ensues!"     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  12.) 

Mencius  makes  a  most  pertinent  inquiry,  the 
answer  to  which  may  well  stagger  the  advocates 
of  unrestricted  laissez-faire,  in  the  following  col- 
loquy with  King  Hwuy  of  Leang : 

'"Is  there  any  difference  between  killing  a  man 
with  a  stick  and  with  a  sword?'  The  king  said, 
'There  is  no  difference.' 

'"Is  there  any  difference  between  doing  it 
with  a  sword  and  with  the  government?'  The 
reply  was,  '  There  is  no  difference. ' 

"'In  your  kitchen  there  is  fat  meat;  in  your 
stables  there  are  fat  horses.  Your  people  have 
the  look  of  hunger,  and  on  the  wilds  lie  those  who 
have  died  of  famine.  This  is  leading  on  beasts  to 
devour  men.";      (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iv.,  v.  2,  3,  4.) 

Mencius,  however,  by  no  means  approved  of 
applying  undeservedly  harsh  epithets  even  to 
those  who  despoil  the  people,  or  of  intemperately 
denouncing,  by  means  of  false  similes,  their  con- 
duct, however  reprehensible:  "Wan  Chang  said, 
'The  princes  of  the  present  day  take  from  their 
people  just  as  a  robber  despoils  his  victim.  Yet 
if  they  put  a  good  face  of  propriety  on  their  gifts, 
the  superior  man  receives  them.  I  venture  to 
ask  how  you  explain  this.' 

' '  Mencius  answered :  '  Do  you  think  that  if 
there  should  arise  a  truly  Imperial  sovereign,  he 
would  collect  the  princes  of  the  present  day  and 
put  them  to  death?     Or  would  he  admonish  them 


The  State  193 

and,  on  their  not  changing  their  ways,  put  them 
to  death?  Indeed,  to  call  everyone  who  takes 
what  does  not  properly  belong  to  him,  a  robber, 
is  pushing  a  point  of  resemblance  to  the  utmost 
and  insisting  on  the  most  refined  idea  of  righteous- 
ness.'"    (Bk.  v.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  5.) 

The  idea  of  Utopia,  where  everybody's  desires, 
however  extensive,  will  be  sated,  is  thus  entirely 
foreign  to  the  conception  of  Confucius  and  his 
followers.  It  is  also  said  in  the  "Many  Dewdrops 
of  the  Spring  and  Autumn":  "The  objects  of 
wants  are  limitless;  the  supply  can  never  be  ade- 
quate. Therefore  is  there  the  keen  sense  of  depri- 
vation."    (Bk.  xxvii.) 

But  fair  and  equitable  distribution  is  necessary, 
both  for  the  material  and  the  ethical  well-being 
of  the  community.  And  in  the  Commentary  of 
Kung-Yang  on  "The  Spring  and  Autumn,"  Ho 
Hsiu  is  represented  as  saying  concerning  the  deadly 
destruction  of  the  poor  by  the  competition  of  the 
rich  and  powerful,  these  words  which  are  so  appli- 
cable to  these  modern  days  of  trusts  and  combina- 
tions: "When  the  rich  compete  with  the  poor, 
even  though  the  law  were  made  by  Kau  Yau, 
nothing  can  prevent  the  strong  from  pressing  on 
the  weak." 

Confucius  warns  of  the  consequences  of  driving 
the  people  to  desperation,  thus:  "The  man  who  is 
fond  of  daring  and  is  discontented  with  his  poverty, 
will  proceed  to  insubordination."  (Analects,  bk. 
viii.,  c.  x.) 
sa 


194  The  Superior  Man  ' 

Mencius  gave  much  attention  to  the  duty  of  the 
ruler  to  provide  for  the  certain  support,  comfort, 
and  even  pleasure  and  entertainment  of  the  people, 
— not  the  enervating,  brutal,  degrading,  pauper- 
izing largess  of  ancient  Rome,  but  protection 
against  force,  fraud,  and  fortune,  the  triad  of 
enemies  of  the  just  distribution  of  the  products 
of  labour.  These  are  a  few  of  his  aptest  state- 
ments : 

"If  Your  Majesty  loves  wealth,  let  the  people 
be  able  to  gratify  the  same  feeling  and  what  diffi- 
culty will  there  be  about  your  attaining  the  Im- 
perial sway?"     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  4.) 

"If  Your  Majesty  now  will  make  pleasure  a 
thing  common  to  the  people  and  yourself,  the 
Imperial  sway  awaits  you."  (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  i., 
v.  8.) 

"The  ancients  caused  the  people  to  have  pleas- 
ure as  well  as  themselves,  and  therefore  they  could 
enjoy  it."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  L,  v.  3.) 

"When  a  ruler  rejoices  in  the  joy  of  his  people, 
they  also  rejoice  in  his  joy ;  when  he  grieves  at  the 
sorrow  of  his  people,  they  also  grieve  at  his  sorrow. 
A  common  feeling  of  joy  will  pervade  the  empire, 
a  common  feeling  of  sorrow  the  same.  In  such  a 
condition,  it  cannot  be  but  that  the  ruler  will 
attain  to  the  Imperial  dignity."  (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

The  reverse  side  of  the  picture  this  reverent 
follower  of  Confucius  thus  presents:  "Their  feeling 
thus  {i.e.,  disaffected  and  disloyal)  is  for  no  other 


The  State  195 

reason  than  that  you  do  not  permit  the  people 
to  have  pleasure  as  well  as  yourself."  (Bk.  i., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  i.,  v.  6.) 

The  establishment  of  public  holidays  is  also 
enjoined,  in  which  all  classes  of  the  people  partake 
under  the  guidance  of  public  officials.  At  these 
there  was  the  "Rite  of  District  Drinking,"  i.e., 
the  custom  of  liberal  alcoholic  potations  in  cele- 
bration of  the  occasion  and  as  a  part  of  the  good- 
fellowship.  Wines,  brewed  and  distilled  liquors 
appear  to  have  been  known  to  the  ancient  Chinese ; 
and  Confucius  favoured  festivals  at  which,  under 
proper  ceremonial  restrictions,  jollity  and  merri- 
ment were  given  full  rein.  The  manner  of  drink- 
ing but  not  the  amount  was  strictly  regulated. 

Most  vividly  and  in  sharp  contrast  with  these 
days  of  high  prices  and  dear  living,  with  the  growth 
of  luxury,  the  diminution  of  the  marriage  rate,  and 
the  yet  greater  fall  of  the  birth  rate,  Mencius  pre- 
sents this  view  of  what  good  government  should 
provide  for  the  citizens  and  through  them  for 
mankind:  "At  that  time,  in  the  seclusion  of  home 
there  were  no  pining  women,  and  outside  of  it  no 
unmarried  men."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  v.,  v.  5.) 

And  here  he  affirms  the  consequences  of  evil 
government  consequences  so  alarmingly  like  those 
over  which  the  great  nations  are  now  lamenting 
as  to  awaken  wonder  whether  the  same  causes 
may  not  always  be  at  work  when  such  results  are 
again  found:  "In  years  of  calamity  and  famine, 
the  weak  and  old,  lying  in  the  ditches  and  water- 


196  The  Superior  Man 

courses,  and  the  able-bodied,  scattered  to  the 
four  quarters,  have  been  myriads  in  number." 
(Mencius,  bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xii.,  v.  2.) 

It  has  not  required  physical  calamity  or  famine, 
also,  to  bring  these  demoralizing  conditions  to  the 
peoples  of  the  most  modern  and  civilized  nations! 

This  worthy  apostle  of  the  doctrine  of  Confucius, 
however,  has  yet  clearer  insight  into  the  causes  of 
the  utter  demoralization  of  the  despairing  and 
destitute.  What  a  sermon  upon  the  text,  "The 
destruction  of  the  poor  is  their  poverty!"  is  spoken 
in  these  two  sentences:  "In  such  circumstances 
they  only  try  to  save  themselves  from  death  and 
are  afraid  they  will  not  succeed.  What  oppor- 
tunity have  such  to  cultivate  propriety  and  right- 
eousness?"    (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vii.,  v.  22.) 

Or,  indeed,  opportunity  or  inducement  to  cul- 
tivate efficiency  as  men  and  workmen? 

This  involves  the  germ  of  the  newest  truths 
conceived  by  modern  statesmen,  namely:  That 
absolute  assurance  of  freedom  from  want,  for  self 
and  dependents,  this  to  be  obtainable  only  by 
efficient  labour  but  as  its  sure  reward,  is  the  most 
powerful  incentive  to  efficiency  and  industry;  and 
that,  whenever  the  conditions  created  by  the 
government  fall  short  of  this,  their  influence  is 
to  this  extent  demoralizing  and  destructive  to  the 
men,  women,  and  children  who  form  the  nation. 

Upon  this  Mencius  said  to  King  Seuen  of  Ts'e, 
in  a  memorable  conversation  upon  the  duties  of 
a  ruler:   "Only  men  of  training  can,  without  a 


The  State  197 

certain  livelihood,  maintain  a  fixed  heart.  As  to 
the  people,  if  they  have  not  a  certain  livelihood, 
it  follows  that  they  will  not  have  a  fixed  heart. 
If  they  do  not  have  a  fixed  heart,  there  is  nothing 
which  they  will  not  do  in  self-abandonment, 
moral  deflection,  depravity,  and  wild  license. 
When  they  have  thus  been  involved  in  crime,  to 
pursue  them  and  punish  them  is  to  entrap  the 
people."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vii.,  v.  20.) 

This  light  is  even  now  just  dawning  upon  the 
minds  of  the  pioneers  in  progress  in  the  most 
advanced  nations.  Fortunate  that  people  which 
first  realizes  it  in  its  national  life  and  practice,  and 
lamentable  the  case  of  that  nation  and  its  people 
who  longest  sin  against  that  light ! 

Mencius,  following  out  the  Confucian  concept 
of  the  state  as  founded  upon  the  family,  boldly 
asserts  that  good  government  must  be  parental. 
The  word  "paternal"  would  have  had  no  terrors, 
surely,  in  a  land  where  the  most  sacred  name, 
next  to  that  of  God  himself,  is  father.  And  if  the 
people,  as  in  a  republic,  choose  them  who  are  to 
rule  over  them,  this  would  seem  but  to  increase 
the  obligation  to  deal  in  a  fatherly  and  not  an 
unfatherly  manner,  toward  the  people  who  have 
so  displayed  their  trust. 

Accordingly  Mencius  could  find  nothing  worse 
to  say  of  a  delinquent  ruler  than  this,  quoted 
from  Lung  Tze:  "When  the  parent  of  the  people 
causes  them  to  look  distressed  and,  after  toiling 
the  entire  year,  not  to  be  able  to  support  their 


i98  The  Superior  Man 

parents,  so  that  they  must  borrow  to  increase 
their  income  and  so  that  the  old  and  the  little 
children  are  found  lying  in  the  ditches  and  streams 
— where,  then,  is  there  anything  parental  in  his 
relation  to  the  people?"  (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii., 
v.  7.) 

Confucius  fully  shared  this  view  as  clearly 
appears  from  all  that  he  has  spoken  concerning 
the  character  and  duties  of  the  great  and  worthy 
ruler  of  his  fellow-men.  These  sayings  are  scat- 
tered throughout  this  book;  but  this  reply  to  one 
of  his  disciples  discloses  in  few  words  his  concep- 
tion of  the  highest  qualities  attainable  by  a  true 
servant  of  the  people:  "Tsze-kung  said:  'Suppose 
the  case  of  a  man  extensively  conferring  benefits 
on  the  people,  and  able  to  assist  all,  what  would 
you  say  of  him?  Might  he  be  called  perfectly 
virtuous?'  The  Master  said:  'Why  speak  only 
of  virtue  in  connection  with  him?  Must  he  not 
have  the  qualities  of  the  sage?'"  (Analects,  bk. 
vi.,  c.  xxviii.,  v.  1.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  this  parable  is  told  to  illustrate 
the  people's  well-grounded  terror  of  misrule: 
"In  passing  by  the  side  of  Mount  Thai,  Confucius 
came  upon  a  woman  who  was  wailing  bitterly  by 
a  grave.  The  Master  bowed  forward  to  the  cross- 
bar, and  hastened  to  her;  and  then  sent  Tsze-loo 
to  question  her.  'Your  wailing,'  said  he,  'is 
altogether  like  that  of  one  who  has  suffered  sorrow 
on  sorrow.'  She  replied,  'It  is  so.  Formerly 
my  husband's  father  was  killed  here  by  a  tiger. 


The  State  199 

My  husband  was  also  killed  by  one,  and  now  my 
son  has  died  in  the  same  way. '  The  Master  said, 
'Why  do  you  not  leave  this  place?'  The  answer 
was,  'There  is  no  oppressive  government  here.' 
The  Master  then  said  to  his  disciples:  'Remember 
this,  my  little  children.  Oppressive  government 
is  more  terrible  than  tigers.'"  (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii., 
pt.  hi.,  10.) 

The  Middle  Path  in  Political  Economy.  ' '  Hence 
there  is  this  saying:  'Some  labour  with  their  minds 
and  some  with  their  muscles.  They  who  labour 
with  their  minds,  govern  others;  they  who  labour 
with  their  muscles  are  governed  by  others.  They 
who  are  governed  by  others,  support  them;  they 
who  govern  others,  are  supported  by  them.'  This 
is  a  principle  universally  recognized."  (Mencius, 
bk.  hi.,  pt.  L,  c.  iv.,  v.  6.) 

In  the  time  of  Confucius,  it  does  not  appear 
that  either  extreme,  anarchism  or  communism, 
was  so  urged  upon  men's  notice  as  to  compel  his 
attention;  but  Mencius,  from  whose  sayings  this 
passage  is  taken  and  who  lived  over  a  century 
later,  was  frequently  confronted  with  their  specious 
arguments. 

This  deliverance  was  in  reply  to  the  following 
argument  in  favour  of  Tolstoian  individualism, 
presented  to  Mencius  by  Ch'in  Seang:  "Now  wise 
and  able  princes  should  cultivate  the  ground 
equally  and  along  with  their  people  and  eat  the 
fruit  of  their  labours.  They  should  prepare  their 
own   meals,   morning  and  evening,   while  at  the 


200  The  Superior  Man 

same  time  they  carry  on  the  government."  (Men- 
cius,  bk.  iii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

The  doctrine  of  the  division  of  labour  and  of  the 
interchange  of  services  and  of  the  products  of 
labour,  Mencius  again  supported  in  this  passage: 
"If  you  do  not  have  an  exchange  of  the  products 
of  labour  and  an  interchange  of  service,  so  that 
too  much  there  will  make  good  too  little  here, 
then  farmers  will  have  a  surplus  of  grain  and  women 
of  cloth.  If  you  have  such  an  interchange,  car- 
penters and  wagon-makers  may  earn  and  receive 
their  sustenance."     (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

The  doctrine  of  extreme  individualism,  when 
presented  in  another  guise,  is  thus  characterized 
by  the  Duke  King  of  Ts'e,  as  reported  by  Men- 
cius: "Not  to  be  able  to  command  others  and  at 
the  same  time  to  refuse  to  receive  their  commands, 
is  to  cut  one's  self  off  from  all  intercourse  with 
men."     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  vii.,  v.  2.) 

At  another  time  he  thus  showed  the  destructive 
and  anarchical  effects,  now  only  too  well  known 
by  experience,  of  the  full  adoption  of  either  the 
extreme  individualistic  or  the  extreme  commu- 
nistic view:  "  Yang's  principle  is :  'Every  man  for 
himself,'  which  does  not  recognize  the  superior 
claim  of  the  sovereign.  Mih's  principle  is:  'Equal 
favour  for  all,'  which  does  not  acknowledge  the 
superior  claim  of  a  father.  But  to  acknowledge 
neither  sovereign  nor  father  is  to  lapse  into  bar- 
barism. ...  If  the  principles  of  Yang  or  of  Mih 
were  urged  and  the  principles  of  Confucius  were 


The  State  201 

not  urged,  these  perverse  reasonings  would  delude 
the  people  and  check  the  course  of  benevolence 
and  righteousness.  When  such  are  checked, 
beasts  will  be  led  forth  to  devour  men  and  men 
will  devour  one  another."  (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ix., 
v.  9.) 

Provision  for  the  Aged,  Widows,  Orphans,  and 
Other  Unfortunates.  "A  competent  provision  was 
secured  for  the  aged  till  their  death,  employment 
for  the  able-bodied,  and  the  means  of  growing  up 
to  the  young.  They  showed  kindness  and  com- 
passion to  widows,  orphans,  childless  men,  and 
those  who  were  disabled  by  disease;  so  that  they 
were  all  sufficiently  maintained.  Men  had  their 
proper  work  and  women  their  homes."  (Li  Ki, 
bk.  vii.,  sect,  i.,  2.) 

The  foregoing  is  the  description  of  the  blissful 
consequences  of  good  government,  contained  in 
"The  Grand  Course"  as  set  forth  in  the  "Li  Ki." 

Mencius  made  the  support  of  the  old,  with 
reverence  and  honour,  the  first  care  of  the  state, 
saying:  "If  there  were  a  prince  in  the  empire  who 
knew  well  how  to  nourish  the  old,  all  good  men 
would  feel  that  he  was  the  right  one  for  them  to 
rally  around."     (Bk.  vii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xxii.,  v.  1.) 

It  is  by  no  means  sufficient  that  the  old  be  sup- 
ported; they  must  be  supported  respectably  and, 
what  is  more  to  the  point,  respectfully.  The 
doctrines  of  Confucius  did  not  tolerate  want  of 
homage  to  the  old.  This  the  following  passages 
from   the  "Li    Ki"  abundantly   illustrate:    "Yu, 


202  The  Superior  Man 

Hsia,  Yin,  and  Kau  produced  the  greatest  kings 
that  have  appeared  under  heaven  and  there  was 
not  one  of  them  who  neglected  age.  Long  under 
heaven  has  honour  been  paid  to  length  of  years! 
To  do  so  is  next  to  service  of  one's  parents." 
(Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  15.)  "There  were  five  things 
by  means  of  which  the  ancient  kings  secured 
the  good  government  of  the  whole  kingdom :  the 
honour  which  they  paid  to  the  virtuous,  to  the 
noble,  and  to  the  old,  the  reverence  which  they 
showed  the  aged,  and  their  kindness  to  the  young. 
By  these  five  things  they  maintained  the  stability 
of  their  kingdom."     (Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  i.,  13.) 

Confucius  is  quoted  in  the  same  book  as  saying : 
"When  those  in  authority  at  their  courts  show 
respect  for  the  aged,  the  people  will  be  filial." 
(Bk.  xxvii.,  24.) 

And  in  another  place  in  the  "Li  Ki"  he  supplies 
this  apt  test  of  a  good  government  of  a  good 
people:  "When  they  saw  an  old  man,  people  driv- 
ing or  walking  gave  him  the  road.  Men  who  had 
white  hairs  mingling  with  the  black  did  not  carry 
burdens  along  the  highways."     (Bk.  xxi.,  17.) 

But  it  is  not  alone  the  aged  who  are  by  the 
authorities  of  a  well-governed  state  made  the 
objects  of  affectionate,  prudent  care,  not  as  a 
matter  of  charity  but  as  a  right.  Mencius  in 
these  words  of  practical  wisdom  offered  mutual 
insurance  as  a  solution  for  this,  effectual  so  far  as 
anything  human  can  equalize  inequalities,  to  ward 
off  disasters  that  overwhelm  a  man  when  standing 


The  State  203 

utterly  alone.  The  following  expression  of  his 
views  has  a  decidedly  twentieth-century,  even 
Bismarckian  tang:  "In  the  fields  of  a  district, 
those  who  belong  to  the  same  nine  squares,  render 
all  friendly  offices  to  one  another  in  their  going 
out  and  coming  in  [$.  e.,  death  and  birth],  aid  one 
another  to  safeguard  life  and  property,  and  support 
one  another  in  sickness."  (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  hi., 
v.  18.) 

Mencius  also  thus  describes  another  sort  of 
social  insurance,  already  prevalent  in  those  days: 
"In  the  spring  they  examined  the  ploughing  and 
supplied  any  deficiency  of  seed;  in  the  fall  they 
examined  the  reaping  and  supplied  any  deficiency 
of  yield."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  5.) 

Surely  if  such  a  system  were  now  in  vogue  in 
China,  effective  and  nation-wide,  a  famine  would 
be  unknown  and  indeed  unthinkable! 

Taxation,  Innocent  and  Destructive.  "If  in 
the  market-place,  he  levy  a  ground  rent  on  the 
shops  but  do  not  tax  the  goods,  or  enforce  proper 
regulations  without  levying  a  ground  rent, — 
then  all  the  merchants  of  the  empire  will  be  pleased 
and  will  wish  to  have  their  goods  in  his  market- 
place. If  at  his  frontier  there  be  an  inspection 
of  persons  but  no  import  duties,  all  travellers 
throughout  the  empire  will  be  pleased,  and  wish 
to  make  their  tours  on  his  roads."  (Mencius, 
bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  v.,  v.  2,  3.) 

Mencius,  as  in  the  foregoing,  considered  the 
question  of  the  proper  modes  of  levying  taxes, 


204  The  Superior  Man 

taking  into  account  their  effect  upon  those  who 
are  engaged  in  agriculture,  in  commerce,  and  in 
the  trades.  In  his  day,  the  question  of  the  proper 
methods  of  taxation  was  evidently  a  live  one,  as 
in  these  days;  and  about  the  same  issues  arose  in 
all  essential  particulars.  The  foregoing  quotation 
from  the  Book  of  Mencius  favours  "ground  rent," 
i.  e.,  a  tax  upon  the  ground,  itself,  now  known  as 
the  "single  tax"  as  proposed  by  Henry  George, — ■ 
or  "proper  regulations,"  by  which  is  doubtless 
meant  licenses  for  use — but  not  a  tax  on  goods, 
i.  e.,  upon  personal  property.  Still  less  does  he 
favour  import  duties. 

The  reasons  which  he  gives  for  opposition  to 
import  duties  were  undoubtedly  valid  in  China 
and  as  between  the  various  states  which  compose 
the  Chinese  empire,  as  they  would  be  against 
import  duties  of  one  state  of  the  United  States 
against  other  states.  Especially  in  this  day  when, 
by  reason  of  the  marvellous  improvement  of  means 
of  communication  and  transportation,  the  world 
has  grown  so  small,  they  may  also  seem  valid, 
save  in  very  exceptional  circumstances,  as  regards 
the  entire  sisterhood  of  nations. 

Mencius  thus  describes,  in  quite  a  "single  tax" 
fashion,  the  origin  of  "ground  rents"  levied  in 
order  to  appropriate  to  the  community  the  value 
of  a  superior  location:  "In  olden  times  in  the 
market  men  exchanged  their  wares  for  the  wares  of 
others  and  merely  had  certain  officers  to  keep 
order.     It  chanced  there  was  a  mean  fellow  who 


The  State  205 

made  it  a  point  to  find  a  conspicuous  mound  and 
get  upon  it.  Thence  he  commanded  the  right  and 
the  left,  so  as  to  draw  into  his  net  all  the  bargains 
of  the  market.  All  considered  his  conduct  con- 
temptible and  so  they  proceeded  to  levy  a  tax 
upon  his  wares.  The  tax  upon  merchants  thus 
sprang  from  this  fellow's  sordidness."  (Bk.  ii., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  x.,  v.  7.) 

Mencius  could  find  no  excuse,  however,  for 
duties,  whether  internal  or  import,  as  the  following 
conversation  shows: 

"Tae  Ying-che  said,  'I  am  not  able  at  present 
to  get  along  at  once  with  the  tithes  only  and  so 
to  abolish  the  duties  imposed  at  the  ports  of  entry 
and  in  the  markets.  With  your  leave,  however, 
I  will  reduce  both  these  duties  until  next  year  and 
then  will  abolish  them  altogether.  What  do  you 
think  of  such  a  course?' 

"Mencius  said,  'Here  is  a  man  who  every  day 
appropriates  some  of  his  neighbour's  strayed  fowls. 
Someone  says  to  him:  "Such  is  not  the  way  of  a 
good  man."  He  replies:  "With  your  leave,  I  will 
diminish  my  appropriations,  and  will  take  but 
one  fowl  per  month  until  next  year  when  I  will 
make  an  end  of  the  practice."  If  you  know  the 
thing  to  be  wrong,  hasten  to  get  rid  of  it!  Why 
wait  until  next  year?'"     (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  viii.) 

The  system  of  levies  upon  the  holders  of  culti- 
vable land,  which  anciently  obtained,  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Mencius:  "A  square  le  covers  nine 
squares  of  land  which  nine  squares  contain  nine 


206  The  Superior  Man 

hundred  mow.  The  central  square  is  the  public 
field;  and  eight  families,  each  having  its  private 
hundred  mow,  cultivate  the  public  field  in  com- 
mon ;  and  not  until  this  public  work  is  done,  dare 
they  attend  to  tilling  their  own  fields."  (Bk.  iii., 
pt.  i.,  c.  iii.,  v.  19.) 

The  change  from  this  to  a  tithing  or  income 
tax  system  in  the  more  populous  districts  is  thus 
indicated:  "I  would  ask  you,  in  the  remoter  dis- 
tricts, observing  the  nine  Squares  division,  to 
reserve  one  division  to  be  cultivated  on  the  system 
of  mutual  aid,  and  in  the  more  central  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  to  require  the  people  to  pay  a  tenth  part 
of  their  produce."     (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii.,  v.  15.) 

As  has  already  been  quoted  in  the  section  on 
"Nourishment  of  the  People,"  Mencius  regarded 
any  system  of  taxation,  based  upon  values,  as  of 
land  or  goods  or  both,  regardless  of  the  product, 
as  destructive  and  in  bad  seasons  even  ruinous, 
resulting  accordingly  in  the  demoralization  and 
pauperization  of  the  people,  while  the  tithe  or 
income  tax  falls  or  rises  with  the  ability  to  respond. 
This  is  also  enforced  by  the  following  from  the 
Book  of  Mencius:  "Lung  said,  'For  regulating 
farms,  there  is  no  better  system  than  that  of 
mutual  aid  and  none  which  is  worse  than  that  of  tax- 
ing. By  taxing,  the  amount  to  be  paid  regularly 
is  fixed  by  taking  the  average  of  several  years. 
In  good  years,  when  there  is  grain  in  abundance, 
much  might  be  taken  without  its  being  oppressive, 
and  the  actual  detriment  would  be  small;  but  in 


The  State  207 

bad  years,  the  produce  not  being  sufficient  to  re- 
pay manuring  the  fields,  the  tax  system  requires 
taking  the  full  amount.'  '  (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii., 
v.  7.) 

Military  Equipment.  "To  lead  an  uninstructed 
people  to  war,  is  to  throw  them  away."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xiii.,  c.  xxx.) 

Confucius  scarcely  referred  to  the  subject  of 
war,  except  in  the  matter  of  indicating  methods 
by  which  both  misunderstandings  with  the  peoples 
of  neighbouring  states  and  revolts  on  the  part 
of  classes  of  the  citizens  may  be  avoided.  This 
indicates  the  relatively  peaceful  conditions  already 
obtaining  there. 

Yet  the  saying  quoted  above  from  the  "Ana- 
lects" seems  full  of  insight  and  of  prescience, 
when  applied  to  the  fate  of  the  soldiers  and  marines 
of  China  and  of  Russia  when  at  different  times 
of  late  pitted  against  the  trained  and  disciplined 
naval  and  military  forces  of  Japan.  May  it  not 
also  be  of  some  importance  to  another  great  people 
of  a  hundred  million  souls  which  leaves  its  free 
citizens  without  military  training?  Are  the  Rus- 
sians and  the  Chinese  the  only  fatuous  people  in 
the  world? 

It  is  also  enforced  by  the  sage  as  follows:  "Let 
a  good  man  teach  the  people  seven  years,  and 
they  may  then  be  led  to  war."  (Analects,  bk.  xiii., 
c.  xxix.) 

These  texts  must  have  been  often  in  the  minds 
of  the  people,  since  the  catastrophes  of   the  two 


208  The  Superior  Man 

Japanese  wars;  and  the  long  belated  seven  years' 
preparation  may  now  be  fairly  under  way. 

Confucius  gave  some  notion  of  what  he  deemed 
the  requisites  of  a  great  military  leader  in  the 
following:  "Tsze-loo  said,  'If  you  had  the  conduct 
of  the  armies  of  a  great  state,  whom  would  you 
have  to  act  with  you?'  The  Master  said,  'I 
would  not  have  him  to  act  with  me,  who  will 
unarmed  attack  a  tiger  or  cross  a  river  without  a 
boat,  dying  without  regret.  My  associate  must  be 
a  man  who  proceeds  to  action  full  of  solicitude,  who 
is  fond  of  adjusting  his  plans  and  then  carries  them 
into  execution ! '"      (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  x.,  v.  2,  3.) 

Yet  this  people,  whose  great  teacher  gave  so 
little  attention  to  military  subjects,  notwithstand- 
ing that  he  ranked  it  as  one  of  the  three  essentials 
of  good  government,  is  the  only  one  among  the 
great  nations  which  has  maintained  real  continuity 
for  itself  through  thousands  of  years;  and  the 
great  wall  which  it  constructed  to  ward  off  north- 
ern invasions  is  quite  the  most  remarkable  line 
of  defences  ever  constructed. 

Mencius  also  advises  this  course,  duly  emphasiz- 
ing the  necessity  for  the  spirit  of  patriotic  devo- 
tion among  the  people,  in  these  words:  "If  you 
will  have  me  counsel  you,  there  is  one  thing  I  can 
suggest.  Dig  deeper  your  moats;  build  higher 
your  walls;  guard  them,  you  and  your  people. 
Be  prepared  to  die  if  need  be,  and  have  the  people 
so  attached  that  they  will  not  desert  you!"  (Bk. 
ii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 


The  State  209 

The  great  impropriety  of  maintaining  military 
forces  in  order  to  overawe  the  people,  as  well  as 
the  utter  want  of  need  for  such  under  a  benevolent 
government,  is  plainly  indicated  by  all  of  the 
teachings  of  the  sage  concerning  government,  yet 
quoted  or  to  be  quoted.  Only  the  following  need 
be  cited:  "Duke  Hwan  assembled  all  the  princes 
together  nine  times  and  did  not  use  weapons  of 
war  and  chariots.  This  was  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Kwan  Chung.  Whose  beneficence  was 
like  his?"     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xvii.,  v.  2.) 

The  manner  in  which  benevolent  government 
knits  all  citizens  into  a  united  band  of  patriots, 
against  whom  no  force,  from  within  or  without,  can 
prevail,  is  thus  described  by  Mencius:  "With  a 
territory  which  is  only  a  hundred  le  square,  it  is 
possible  to  attain  the  Imperial  dignity.  If  Your 
Majesty  will  give  a  benevolent  government  to 
your  people,  be  sparing  in  punishments  and  fines 
and  make  the  taxes  and  levies  light,  so  causing 
fields  to  be  ploughed  deep  and  weeding  to  be 
carefully  attended  to  and  the  strong-bodied,  during 
their  days  of  leisure,  to  cultivate  filial  piety,  fra- 
ternal respectfulness,  sincerity,  truthfulness,  serv- 
ing thereby,  at  home,  their  fathers  and  elder 
brothers  and,  abroad,  their  elders  and  superiors 
— you  will  then  have  a  people  who  can  be  employed 
with  sticks  they  have  prepared,  to  oppose  the 
strong  mail  and  sharp  weapons  of  the  troops  of 
Ts'in  and  Ts'oo."'     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  v.,  v.  2,  3.) 

And  with  yet  more  enthusiastic  eloquence  he 
14 


210  The  Superior  Man 

celebrates  the  prowess  of  a  united  people  under  a 
leader  whom  all  trust  to  the  uttermost  and  their 
ability  to  overcome  every  foe  and  resist  every 
assault,  in  this  passage,  condemning  reliance  upon 
mere  strength  of  fortifications  and  armament: 
"With  walls  of  great  height,  with  moats  of  great 
depth,  with  arms,  both  of  offence  and  defence, 
trenchant  and  mighty,  with  great  stores  of  rice 
and  other  food,  the  city  is  surrendered  and  aban- 
doned. This  is  because  material  advantages  do 
not  compensate  for  the  absence  of  the  spiritual 
union  of  men.  Therefore  is  it  said,  'A  people  is 
protected,  not  by  bulwarks  and  ditches;  a  king- 
dom is  safeguarded,  not  by  rivers  and  mountains; 
an  empire  is  conquered,  not  by  the  superiority  of 
arms!'"     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  i.,  v.  3,  4.) 

Kingly  Qualities.  "What  is  most  potent  is  to 
be  a  man.  Its  influence  will  be  felt  throughout 
the  state."  (Shi  King,  Sacrificial  Odes  of  Kau, 
decade  i.,  ode  4.) 

Confucius  makes  these  words  of  the  "Shi  King" 
more  emphatic,  when  he  says:  "Let  there  be  men 
and  the  government  will  flourish;  but,  without 
men,  government  decays  and  dies."  (Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,  c.  xx.,  v.  2.) 

And  it  is  also  remarked  in  "The  Great  Learn- 
ing": "When  the  ruler  excels  as  a  father,  a  son, 
and  a  brother,  then  the  people  imitate  him." 
(C.  ix.,  v.  8.) 

The  same  is  put  in  illustrative  form  in  this 
legend  of  China's  dawn  of  history:  "Shun,  being  in 


The  State  211 

possession  of  the  empire,  selected  from  among  all 
the  people  and  employed  Kaou-yaou,  on  which  all 
who  were  devoid  of  virtue  disappeared."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  xii.,  c.  xxii.,  v.  6.) 

To  Shun  himself  Confucius  attributed  that 
perfect  poise  which  commanded  because  it  was 
commanding  and  showered  benefits  because  the 
king  with  all  his  heart  desired  the  welfare  of  his 
people.  Of  him  it  is  said  in  the  "Analects": 
"May  not  Shun  be  instanced  as  having  governed 
efficiently  without  exertion?  What  did  he  do? 
He  did  nothing  but  gravely  and  reverently  oc- 
cupy the  imperial  seat."  (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c. 
iv.) 

In  another  passage  a  like  majesty  is  ascribed 
also  to  Yu:  "How  majestic  was  the  manner  in 
which  Shun  and  Yu  held  possession  of  the  empire 
as  if  it  were  nothing  to  them!"  (Analects,  bk. 
viii.,  c.  xviii.) 

In  the  "Yi  King"  a  much  more  detailed  but 
somewhat  extravagant  description  of  the  power 
of  character  in  enforcing  benevolent  and  benefi- 
cent rules  of  government  is  given,  thus:  "The 
Master  said,  '  The  superior  man  occupies  his  apart- 
ment and  sends  forth  his  words.  If  they  be  good, 
they  will  be  responded  to  at  a  distance  of  more 
than  a  thousand  li;  how  much  more  will  they  be 
so  in  the  nearer  circle!  He  occupies  his  apart- 
ment and  sends  forth  his  words.  If  they  be  evil 
they  will  awaken  opposition  at  a  distance  of  more 
than  a  thousand  li;  how  much  more  will  they  do 


212  The  Superior  Man 

so  in  the  nearer  circle!'"  (Appendix  iii.,  sect,  i., 
c.  viii.,  v.  42.) 

This  subject  comes  abruptly  out  of  the  clouds 
to  the  level  of  practical,  everyday  life,  however, 
when  the  following  plain-spoken  words  from  the 
lips  of  the  sage  are  consulted  in  the  "Analects": 

"If  a  minister  make  his  own  conduct  correct, 
what  difficulty  will  he  have  about  assisting  in 
government?  If  he  cannot  rectify  himself,  what 
has  he  to  do  with  rectifying  others?"  (Bk.  xiii., 
c.  xiii.) 

Mencius  paid  his  tribute  to  the  power  of  virtue, 
as  follows:  "In  the  empire  there  are  three  things 
universally  acknowledged  to  be  honourable.  No- 
bility is  one  of  them,  age  is  one  of  them,  virtue 
is  one  of  them.  In  courts  nobility  holds  first 
place,  in  villages  age,  and  for  usefulness  to  one's 
generation  and  controlling  the  people,  neither  is 
equal  to  virtue."     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  6.) 

It  is  difficult,  however,  even  for  Confucius  to 
avoid  enthusiasm  in  the  statement  of  this  propo- 
sition to  which  he  returns  again  and  again,  as 
thus:  "He  who  exercises  government  by  means  of 
his  virtue,  may  be  compared  to  the  north  polar 
star  which  keeps  its  place  and  all  the  stars  turn 
toward  it."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  i.) 

In  two  other  sayings,  are  presented  different 
phases  of  this  view:  "When  rulers  love  to  observe 
the  rules  of  propriety,  the  people  respond  readily 
to  the  calls  upon  them  for  service."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiv.,  c.  xliv.)     "The  superior  man  does  not 


The  State  213 

use  rewards,  yet  the  people  are  stimulated  to 
virtue.  He  does  not  show  wrath,  yet  the  people 
are  more  awed  than  by  hatchets  and  battle-axes." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxiii.,  v.  4.) 

Mencius  also  says:  "When  one  subdues  men  by 
force,  they  do  not  submit  to  him  in  heart  but  be- 
cause not  strong  enough  to  resist.  When  one 
subdues  men  by  virtue,  they  are  pleased  to  the 
heart's  core  and  sincerely  submit."  (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  i., 
c.  iii.,  v.  2.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  consequences  upon  the  ruler 
and  his  government,  of  qualities  opposite  to  these, 
are  indicated  by  this  significant  question:  "If 
his  heart  be  not  observant  of  righteousness,  self- 
consecration,  good  faith,  sincerity,  and  guileless- 
ness,  though  a  ruler  may  try  to  knit  the  people 
firmly  to  him,  will  not  all  bonds  between  them  be 
dissolved?"     (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  iii.,  11.) 

This  picture  is  given  by  Confucius  in  the  "Ana- 
lects," of  a  worthy  and  successful  ruler:  "By  his 
generosity,  he  won  all.  By  his  sincerity,  he  made 
the  people  repose  trust  in  him.  By  his  earnest 
activity,  his  achievements  were  great.  By  his 
justice,  all  were  delighted."     (Bk.  xx.,  c.  i.,  v.  9.) 

I  Yin,  as  quoted  in  the  "Shu  King,"  thus  elo- 
quently descants  upon  the  earnest  aspirations  of 
another  ruler:  "The  former  king,  before  it  was 
light,  sought  to  have  large  and  clear  views  and 
then  sat  waiting  for  the  dawn  to  put  them  into 
practice."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  v.,  2.) 

The  Duke  of  Chin,  according  to  the  same  book, 


214  The  Superior  Man 

thus  defined  the  qualities  that  characterize  the 
great  minister:  "Let  me  have  but  one  resolute 
minister,  plain  and  sincere,  without  other  ability 
but  having  a  straightforward  mind,  and  possessed 
of  generosity,  regarding  the  talents  of  others  as 
if  he  possessed  them  himself,  and  when  he  finds 
accomplished  and  sage  men,  loving  them  in  his 
heart  more  than  his  mouth  expresses,  really  show- 
ing himself  able  to  bear  them;  such  a  minister 
would  be  able  to  preserve  my  descendants  and 
people  and  would  indeed  be  a  giver  of  benefits." 
(Pt.  v.,  bk.  xxx.) 

Confucius  himself,  replying  to  the  question  of 
a  disciple,  gives  an  estimate  of  the  most  desirable 
qualifications  for  an  officer  of  lower  rank.  It 
runs: 

"Tsze-kung  asked,  'What  qualities  must  a  man 
possess  to  entitle  him  to  be  called  an  officer? '  The 
Master  said,  'He  who  in  his  own  conduct  main- 
tains a  sense  of  shame  and  when  sent  to  any  quar- 
ter, will  not  disgrace  his  prince's  commission, 
deserves  to  be  called  an  officer. ' 

"Tsze-kung  went  on,  'I  venture  to  ask  who  may 
be  placed  in  the  next  lower  rank,'  and  was  told, 
'He  whom  the  circle  of  his  relatives  pronounces 
filial,  whom  his  fellow-villagers  and  neighbours 
pronounce  fraternal.' 

"He  asked  once  more,  'I  venture  to  ask  about 
the  class  next  in  order. '  The  Master  said,  '  They 
who  are  determined  to  be  sincere  in  what  they 
say  and  to  carry  out  what  they  do.     They  are 


The  State  215 

obstinate  little  men.  Yet  perhaps  they  make  the 
next  class. ' "  (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xx.,  v.  1,2,  3.) 

Some  of  the  qualities  which  are  most  valuable 
in  a  public  officer  Confucius  named  in  commending 
a  contemporary  thus:  "The  Master  said  of  Tsze- 
ch'an  that  he  had  four  of  the  characteristics  of  a 
superior  man : '  In  his  own  conduct,  he  was  humble ; 
in  serving  his  superiors,  he  was  respectful;  in  pro- 
viding for  the  people's  support,  he  was  kind;  in 
ordering  the  people,  he  was  just.'"  (Analects, 
bk.  v.,  c.  xv.) 

The  following  conversation  drew  from  Confucius 
a  distinct  statement  of  what  quality  in  a  ruler  is 
most  essential,  i.  e.,  humility  and  a  deep  sense  of 
responsibility,  and  what  quality  is  most  destructive, 
i.  e.,  a  dictatorial,  wrong-headed  obstinacy,  which 
brooks  no  advice,  remonstrance,  or  opposition: 

"The  Duke  Ting  asked  whether  there  was  a 
single  sentence  which  could  make  a  country 
prosperous.     Confucius  replied: 

"'Such  an  effect  cannot  be  expected  from  one 
sentence.  There  is  a  saying,  however,  which 
people  have:  To  be  a  prince  is  difficult,  to  be  a 
minister  not  easy.  If  a  ruler  know  this,  how 
difficult  it  is  to  be  a  prince,  may  there  not  be 
expected  from  this  one  sentence,  that  the  country 
be  made  prosperous?' 

"The  duke  then  asked,  'Is  there  a  single  sen- 
tence which  can  ruin  a  country?'  Confucius 
replied: 

"'Such  an  effect  cannot  be  expected  from  one 


216  The  Superior  Man 

sentence.  There  is  a  saying,  however,  which 
people  have:  I  have  no  pleasure  in  being  prince, 
except  that  no  one  offers  opposition  to  what  I  say. 
If  a  ruler's  words  be  good,  is  it  not  also  good  that 
no  one  oppose  them?  But  if  not  good  and  no  one 
opposes  them,  may  there  not  be  expected  from 
this  one  sentence  the  ruin  of  the  country  ? " ' 
(Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  xv.) 

That  to  die  surrounded  by  the  splendours  of 
absolute  sway  does  not  assure,  in  the  face  of  every 
evidence  of  misrule,  that  one  has  been  successful, 
Confucius  illustrates  by  this  reference  to  Chinese 
history:  "The  Duke  King  of  Ts'e  had  a  thousand 
chariots,  each  drawn  by  four  horses;  but  on  the 
day  of  his  death  the  people  did  not  honour  him 
for  a  single  virtue.  P'ih-e  and  Shu-ts'e  died  of 
hunger  at  the  foot  of  the  Show-yang  mountain, 
and  yet  the  people  honour  them  to  this  day." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  xii.,  v.  i.) 

And  this  glowing  and  inviting  prospect  he  dis- 
closes for  the  ruler  of  men  who  bases  his  claim 
upon  propriety,  righteousness,  and  good  faith: 
"If  a  superior  love  propriety,  the  people  will  not 
dare  not  to  be  reverent.  If  he  love  righteousness, 
the  people  will  not  dare  not  to  conform  to  his 
desires.  If  he  love  good  faith,  the  people  will  not 
dare  not  to  be  sincere.  When  these  things  obtain, 
the  people  from  all  quarters  will  come  to  him, 
bearing  their  children  on  their  backs."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

Power  of  Official  Example.     "The  ruler  must 


The  State  217 

first  himself  be  possessed  of  the  qualities  which 
he  requires  of  the  people;  and  must  be  free  from 
the  qualities  which  he  requires  the  people  to  ab- 
jure."    (Great  Learning,  c.  ix.,  v.  4.) 

Thus  Confucius  emphasizes  the  most  modern 
principle  of  "noblesse  oblige";  nor  does  he  leave 
it  doubtful  that  what  he  means  is  that  "example 
speaks  louder  than  words,"  especially  when  he 
whose  conduct  is  in  question  stands  forth  in  all 
men's  sight  their  chief  and  leader,  for  he  is  quoted 
by  Mencius  as  saying:  "What  the  superior  man 
loves,  his  inferiors  will  be  found  to  love  exceed- 
ingly. The  relation  between  superiors  and  inferi- 
ors is  like  that  between  the  wind  and  the  grass. 
The  grass  must  bend  when  the  wind  blows  upon 
it."     (Mencius,  bk.  iii.,  pt.  L,  c.  ii.,  v.  4.) 

In  the  "  Li  Ki"  appears  the  following  concerning 
the  influence  of  the  example  set  by  the  ruler: 
"The  Master  said,  '  Inferiors,  in  serving  those  over 
them,  do  not  follow  what  they  command,  but  what 
they  do.  When  a  ruler  loves  a  given  thing,  his 
subjects  will  do  so,  more  than  he.  Therefore  he 
who  is  in  authority  should  be  careful  about  what 
he  likes  and  what  he  dislikes;  for  these  will  be 
examples  in  the  eyes  of  the  people."  (Li  Ki, 
bk.  xxx.,  4.) 

In  the  following,  also  from  the  "Li  Ki,"  he  con- 
nects it  with  the  most  powerful  sanction  for  ethical 
conduct  known  to  the  Chinese,  i.  e.,  filial  piety: 
"When  a  man  who  is  over  others  transgresses  in 
his  words,   the  people  will  fashion  their  speech 


2i 8  The  Superior  Man 

accordingly;  when  he  transgresses  in  his  conduct, 
the  people  will  imitate  him  as  their  model.  If  in 
his  words  he  does  not  go  beyond  what  should  be 
said,  nor  in  his  acts  beyond  what  should  be  done, 
then  the  people,  without  direction  so  to  do,  will 
revere  and  honour  him.  When  this  is  so,  he  has 
respected  himself;  and  having  respected  himself, 
he  will  have  honoured  his  parents  to  the  utmost." 
(Bk.  xxiv.,  13.) 

"The  Great  Learning"  thus  derives  both  the 
safety  and  the  peril  of  the  state,  in  this  regard, 
from  the  observation  of  filial  and  fraternal  obliga- 
tions within  the  family:  "From  the  love  within 
one  family,  the  entire  state  may  be  made  loving; 
from  its  courtesies,  the  entire  state  be  made  cour- 
teous; while  from  the  ambition  and  perverseness 
of  one  man,  the  entire  state  may  be  led  into  rebel- 
lion; such  is  the  power  of  example."  (C.  ix.,   v.  3.) 

In  the  same  book  it  is  put  thus:  "In  the  Book 
of  Poetry  it  is  said :  '  In  his  deportment  there  is 
nothing  wrong;  he  rectifies  all  the  people  of  the 
state. '  When  the  ruler,  as  a  father,  a  son,  and  a 
brother,  is  exemplary,  the  people  will  imitate  him." 
(C.  ix.,  v.  8.) 

In  the  "Analects,"  Confucius  has  repeatedly 
announced  this  truth,  as  in  these  words:  "When  a 
prince's  personal  conduct  is  correct,  his  govern- 
ment is  effective  without  the  issuing  of  orders. 
When  his  personal  conduct  is  not  correct,  he  may 
issue  orders  but  they  will  not  be  obeyed."  (Bk. 
xiii.,  c.  vi.) 


The  State  219 

One  reason  that  so  much  greater  potency  in- 
heres in  what  he  who  presides  over  the  destiny  of 
a  people  does,  than  in  what  he  says  or  even  com- 
mands, Confucius  assigns  in  this  saying:  "The 
people  may  be  made  to  follow  a  course  of  action, 
but  they  may  not  be  made  to  understand  it." 
(Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  ix.) 

And  Confucius  accentuates  the  lesson  in  this: 
"Though  a  man  have  abilities  as  admirable  as 
those  of  the  duke  of  Chow,  yet  if  he  be  proud  and 
niggardly,  those  other  things  are  really  not  worth 
being  looked  at."     (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xi.) 

Yet  not  too  much,  nor  that  too  soon,  must  be 
expected  even  of  the  most  brilliant  and  efficacious 
righteousness  of  the  man  in  command,  when  for  a 
long  time  disorder  and  demoralization  have  pre- 
vailed. In  the  "Analects"  Confucius  says  of 
this:  "If  a  truly  royal  ruler  were  to  arrive,  it 
would  require  a  generation  and  then  virtue  would 
prevail."     (Bk.  xiii.,  c.  xii.) 

Yet  he  urged  that  the  ruler  rely  upon  the  purity 
of  his  desire,  his  example,  and  persuasion  of  the 
people  to  love  and  practise  what  is  good,  rather 
than  upon  proscription  and  penalties;  and  he 
says:  "  If  the  people  be  led  by  laws  and  uniformity 
sought  to  be  given  them  by  punishments,  they 
will  try  to  avoid  the  punishment  but  have  no  sense 
of  guilt.  If  they  be  led  by  virtue  and  uniformity 
sought  to  be  given  them  by  the  rules  of  propriety, 
they  will  have  the  sense  of  guilt  and  moreover  will 
become  good."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  iii.) 


220  The  Superior  Man 

Again  he  inquires,  most  significantly:  "In  car- 
rying on  your  government,  why  should  you  use 
killing  at  all?  Let  your  desires  be  for  what  is 
good,  and  the  people  will  be  good."  (Analects, 
bk.  xii.,  c.  xix.) 

And  in  a  like  spirit  he  rebukes  a  prince  who 
complained  to  him,  thus:  "Ke  K'ang  Tze,  dis- 
tressed about  the  prevalence  of  thieves,  inquired 
of  Confucius  how  to  suppress  them.  Confucius 
replied:  'If  you  yourself  were  not  covetous,  they 
would  not  steal,  though  you  should  offer  a  reward 
for  stealing.'"     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xviii.) 

His  disciple,  Tsang  Tze,  thus  imposes  upon  every 
man  who  occupies  high  station  the  obligation  to 
guard  his  demeanour,  deportment,  speech,  and 
conduct  to  the  end  that  none  of  those  who  look  up 
to  him  shall  be  corrupted  thereby:  "There  are 
three  principles  of  conduct  which  the  man  of  high 
rank  should  consider  specially  important:  that 
in  his  deportment  and  manner  he  keep  from  vio- 
lence and  heedlessness ;  that  in  regulating  his  coun- 
tenance he  keep  near  to  sincerity;  and  that  in 
word  and  tone  he  keep  far  from  lowness  and  im- 
propriety."    (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

Upon  the  chief  ruler  of  China,  the  leader  and 
exemplar  for  all  the  people,  this  responsibility  is 
so  made  to  rest  that,  were  it  fully  realized  in 
actual  government,  every  emperor  would  present 
the  touching  and  edifying  picture  of  an  Abraham 
Lincoln,  bending  beneath  the  heavy  burdens  of 
the  people  whom  he  so  loved  and  so  served  with 


The  State  221 

conscientious  reverence.  For  these  words  the 
sage  puts  into  the  prayer  of  him  whom  imperial 
sway  makes  the  servant  of  all  his  people:  "If, 
in  my  own  person,  I  commit  offences,  they  are 
not  to  be  attributed  to  you,  ye  people  of  the  myriad 
regions.  If  ye  in  the  myriad  regions  commit 
offences,  the  guilt  must  rest  upon  my  head." 
(Analects,  bk.  xx.,  c.  i.,  v.  3.) 

Universal  Education.  "When  the  man  of  high 
station  is  well  instructed,  he  loves  men;  when  the 
man  of  low  station  is  well  instructed,  he  is  easily 
ruled."     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

Thus  Confucius  sets  forth  the  necessity  for 
general  education  of  all  classes  of  the  people  and 
the  benefits  in  respect  of  government  which  flow 
from  it.  In  another  place,  he  says,  even  more 
significantly,  of  the  levelling  power  of  education: 
"There  being  instruction,  there  will  be  no  distinc- 
tion of  classes."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  xxxviii.) 

This  levelling  extended  also  to  those  of  the 
highest  rank  and  beyond  school-days  into  official 
life,  determining  the  fitness  and  title  to  public 
office.  Thus  the  "Hsun  Tse"  (bk.  ix.)  says  of  this : 
"Even  among  the  sons  of  the  emperor,  the  princes, 
and  the  great  officials,  if  they  were  not  qualified 
to  rites  and  justice,  they  should  be  put  down  to 
the  class  of  common  people ;  even  among  the  sons 
of  the  common  people,  if  they  have  good  education 
and  character  and  are  qualified  to  rites  and  justice, 
they  should  be  elevated  to  the  class  of  ministers 
and  nobles." 


222  The  Superior  Man 

According  to  the  "Li  Ching,"  the  education  of 
the  child  commences  with  its  conception,  and  ac- 
cordingly explicit  instructions  are  given  to  secure 
proper  prenatal  influences  and  ward  off  evil  influ- 
ences. The  instructions  are  as  to  physical,  mental, 
and  moral  conduct  of  the  mother  during  gestation, 
with  the  direct  object  of  producing  a  strong,  intel- 
ligent, and  moral  human  being. 

The  value  and  potency  of  education  are  set 
forth  in  the  same  work  (bk.  xlviii.)  as  follows: 
"When  a  child  is  trained  completely,  his  educa- 
tion is  just  as  strong  as  his  nature;  and  when  he 
practises  anything  constantly,  he  will  do  it  natu- 
rally as  a  permanent  habit." 

Mencius  made  the  following  sage  and  practical 
remark  concerning  another  aspect  of  the  relation 
of  education  to  government:  "Good  government  is 
feared  by  the  people,  while  good  instruction  is  loved 
by  them.  Good  government  gets  the  people's 
wealth,  while  good  instruction  wins  their  hearts." 
(Bk.  vii.,  pt.  i.,  c.  xiv.,  v.  3.) 

In  this,  of  course  the  expression  "good  govern- 
ment" means  much  the  same  as  in  modern  politics, 
i.  e.,  "business  men's  government,"  bent  upon 
securing  order  and  economy  only,  but  often  utterly 
disregarding  the  desires  and  even  the  essential 
well-being  of  the  lowly  and  oppressed.  Real 
"good  government"  necessarily  includes  instruc- 
tion; and  that  Mencius  fully  understood  this,  the 
following  penetrating  remark  from  his  book  fully 
substantiates:  "Men  possess  a  moral  nature;  but 


The  State  223 

if  they  are  well  fed,  warmly  clad,  and  comfortably 
lodged,  without  at  the  same  time  being  instructed, 
they  become  like  unto  beasts."  (Bk.  iii.,  pt.  i., 
c.  iv.,  v.  8.) 

This  principle,  that  education  is  the  great  and 
constant  need  of  all  minds  and  most  especially  of 
the  mind  of  him  who  would  lead  others,  Mencius 
also  applied  remorselessly  to  the  princes  of  his 
day,  as  a  paramount  duty  resting  upon  them,  in 
this  passage:  "Now,  throughout  the  empire,  the 
jurisdictions  of  the  princes  are  of  equal  extent  and 
none  excels  his  fellows  in  achievement.  Not  one 
is  able  to  go  beyond  the  others.  This  is  from  no 
other  reason  than  that  they  love  to  make  minis- 
ters of  those  whom  they  teach  rather  than  to 
make  ministers  of  those  by  whom  they  might 
themselves  be  taught."     (Bk.  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  9.) 

And  to  the  burden  of  this  responsibility,  i.  e., 
at  all  times  to  be  earnestly  and  humbly  seeking 
instruction  themselves,  he  thus  added  the  duty 
of  providing  for  the  education  of  the  people, 
coupled  with  the  promise  of  such  fulfilment  of 
ambitions  as  naturally  flows  from  excellence  in 
the  performance  of  obligations  already  assumed: 
"Let  careful  attention  be  paid  to  education  in 
schools,  inculcating  in  it  especially  the  filial  and 
fraternal  duties,  and  grey-haired  men  will  not  be 
seen  upon  the  roads,  bearing  burdens  on  their 
backs  or  on  their  heads.  It  never  has  been  that 
the  ruler  of  a  state  where  such  results  were  seen — 
persons  of  seventy  wearing  silks  and  eating  flesh 


224  The  Superior  Man 

and  the  black-haired  people  suffering  neither  from 
hunger  nor  cold — did  not  attain  to  the  Imperial 
dignity."     (Mencius,  bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  iii.,  v.  4.) 

That  these  were  not  intended  as  mere  platitudes 
is  shown,  not  merely  by  the  result  that  in  China 
for  thousands  of  years  education  has  been  the 
test,  on  a  strictly  competitive  basis,  without  regard 
to  wealth,  social  position,  and  influence  of  for- 
bears, by  which  political  preferment  has  been 
determined;  but  also  by  the  strictly  practical 
statements  concerning  popular  instruction,  such 
as  this  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "If  he  wish  to  trans- 
form the  people  and  to  perfect  their  manners  and 
customs,  must  he  not  start  with  the  lessons  of  the 
school?"     (Bk.  xvi.,  1.) 

The  established  public  means  of  education  are 
thus  described  in  the  same  book:  "According  to 
the  system  of  ancient  teaching,  for  the  families  of 
a  hamlet  (25)  there  was  the  village  school;  for  a 
neighbourhood  (500  families)  there  was  the  acad- 
emy; for  a  larger  district  (2500  families),  the 
college;  and  in  the  capitals,  a  university."  (Bk. 
xvi.,  4.) 

That  there  may  be  no  question  that  the  com- 
petitive examination  was  already  the  essential  for 
political  appointment  or  advancement,  this  is 
also  quoted  from  the  "Li  Ki":  " Every  year  some 
entered  the  college  and  every  second  year  there 
was  a  competitive  examination."     (Bk.  xvi.,  5.) 

The  accepted  and  approved  purpose  of  instruc- 
tion, as  laid  down  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  is  also  most 


The  State  225 

progressive  and  may  to  advantage,  perhaps,  be 
contrasted  with  the  insistence,  now  happily  sub- 
siding, in  Occidental  nations  that  "the  three  R's," 
i.  e.,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  if  indeed  so 
much  as  that,  are  quite  sufficient  and  all  that,  or 
more  than,  the  government  should  concern  itself 
to  secure  for  the  people.  This  passage  illustrates 
the  view  in  China,  even  before  Confucius  came  to 
instruct  his  people  for  all  time:  "Teaching  should 
be  directed  to  develop  that  in  which  the  pupil  ex- 
cels, and  correct  the  defects  to  which  he  is  prone." 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xvi.,  14.) 

Modern  courses  in  psychology  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  teachers  were  anticipated  also  in  the  olden 
times,  centuries  before  the  Christian  era;  and  the 
whole  matter  had  been  clearly  and  discriminatingly 
put,  as  in  this  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "Among  pupils 
there  are  four  defects  with  which  the  teacher  must 
make  himself  acquainted.  Some  err  by  assuming 
too  many  branches  of  study ;  some,  too  few ;  some 
in  over-facility;  some,  in  want  of  persistence. 
These  four  defects  arise  from  the  differences  of 
their  minds.  When  the  teacher  understands  the 
character  of  his  pupil's  mind,  he  can  rescue  him 
from  the  fault  to  which  he  is  prone."     (Bk.  xvi., 

I4-) 
It    is   also    said    upon    this   interesting    topic: 

"When  a  man  of  talents  and  virtue  understands 

the  stupidity  of  one  pupil  and  the  precocity  of 

another  in  the  attainment  of  knowledge  and  also 

comprehends   the   good   and  bad  qualities  of  his 

is 


226  The  Superior  Man 

pupils,    he   can    vary    his    methods   of   teaching 
accordingly.     When  he  can  vary  his  methods  of 
teaching,  he  is  indeed  a  master.     When  so  fitted 
to  be  a  teacher,  he  is  qualified  for  administrative 
office;  and  when  so  qualified  for  administrative 
office,  he  is  even  fitted  to  be  chosen  as  ruler  of  the 
state.     Therefore  is  it  that  from  a  teacher  one 
learns  how  to  be  a  ruler ;  and  therefore  that  in  the 
choice   of  a  teacher  the  greatest  care  should  be 
exercised.     As  it  is  said  in  the  History:  'The  three 
kings  and  the  four  dynasties  were  what  they  were, 
by  reason  of  their  teachers. ' "     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvi.,  16.) 
This  also,  from  the  same  source,  bears  upon  the 
psychology  of  the  problem  of  teaching  and  also 
shows  that  the  true  meaning  of  "to  educate"  was 
already    apprehended:    "When    a    superior    man 
knows  the  causes  which  make  instruction  success- 
ful and  those  which  make  it  of  no  effect,  he  can 
become  a  teacher  of  others.     Thus,  in  his  teaching, 
he  draws  out  and  does  not  merely  carry  along; 
he  encourages  and  does  not  discourage;  he  opens 
up  the  subject  but  does  not  exhaust  it,  leaving 
the  student  nothing  to  do.     Drawing  out  and  not 
merely  dragging  along  produces  concert  of  effort. 
Encouraging  and  not  restraining  makes  it  easy 
to  go  forward.     Opening  up  the  subject  and  not 
exhausting  it  forces  the  student  himself  to  think. 
He  who  brings  about  this  concert  of  action,  this 
ready  advancement,  and  this   independent  initi- 
ative of  thought   may  be  pronounced   a  skilful 
teacher."     (Bk.  xvi.,  13.) 


The  State  227 

Confucius,  in  the  "Analects,"  twice  gives  ex- 
pression to  the  same  fundamental  principle:  "With 
one  like  Tsze,  I  can  commence  talking  about  the 
Odes.  I  told  him  one  point  and  he  knew  its 
proper  sequence."  (Bk.  vii.,  c.  viii.)  "I  do  not 
open  up  the  truth  to  one  who  is  not  eager  for 
knowledge,  nor  help  out  any  one  who  is  not  him- 
self anxious  to  explore  causes.  When  I  have 
presented  one  corner  of  a  subject  to  any  one  and 
he  cannot  learn  from  it  the  other  three,  I  do  not 
repeat  my  lesson."     (Bk.  xii.,  c.  viii.) 

In  its  entirety  this  was  a  course  necessary  for 
Confucius  with  his  great  work  to  do,  but  scarcely 
practicable  for  all  teachers  for  the  reason  that  all 
must  be  instructed,  whether  bright  or  dull,  whether 
studious  or  indolent;  the  sage's  impatience  with 
sluggishness  and  dulness,  the  ordinary  teacher 
could  not  imitate,  except  by  utterly  destroying 
his  usefulness.  In  consequence,  therefore,  the 
sage  nowhere  recommends  such  procedure  to 
teachers,  whether  of  the  young  or  of  the  mature. 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  correct  view  of  this  aspect 
of  teaching  is  thus  set  forth  with  considerable 
fulness:  "The  skilful  student,  though  his  teacher 
seems  indifferent,  yet  attains  double  as  much  as 
another  and  in  the  sequel  ascribes  the  credit  to 
his  teacher.  The  unskilful,  though  his  teacher  be 
diligent  with  him,  makes  but  half  the  progress  and 
in  the  sequel  blames  his  teacher.  The  skilful 
inquirer  is  like  a  workman  addressing  himself  to 
deal  with  a  hard  log :  first  he  attacks  the  easy  parts 


228  The  Superior  Man 

and  then  the  knotty.  After  applying  himself  a 
good  while,  he  talks  with  his  teacher  and  all  is 
plain.  The  unskilful  does  the  contrary."  (Bk. 
xvi.,  18.) 

The  popular  impression  among  Occidental 
peoples — so  far  as  they  have  any  impression — 
concerning  the  instruction  of  Chinese  children  is 
well  illustrated  by  what  the  "Li  Ki"  condemns 
in  this  passage:  "Under  the  system  of  instruction 
now  in  use  the  teachers  hum  over  the  tablets 
which  they  have  before  them  and  ask  many  ques- 
tions. They  then  speak  of  their  pupils  making 
rapid  progress  but  pay  no  attention  to  whether 
they  retain  what  they  have  been  taught.  They 
are  not  earnest  in  imposing  burdens  upon  their 
pupils  nor  do  they  put  forth  all  their  power  to 
instruct  them.  The  habits  they  thus  cause  the 
pupils  to  form  are  not  good  and  the  students  are 
disappointed  about  attaining  what  they  seek. 
Accordingly,  they  find  their  studies  onerous  and 
despise  their  teachers;  they  are  embittered  by  the 
difficulties  they  encounter  and  realize  but  poor 
results  of  their  toil.  They  may  appear  to  do  their 
work  but  they  quickly  lose  what  they  acquire. 
That  there  are  no  stable  results  of  their  instruc- 
tion, is  it  not  due  to  these  defects  in  their  teacher?  " 
(Bk.  xvi.,  10.) 

That  the  good  teacher  is  to  be  regarded  as  an 
important  member  of  the  community  and  must 
be  treated  with  respect  and  veneration,  in  order 
that  he  may  best  perform  his  useful  function,  is 


The  State  229 

inculcated  also  in  the  "Li  Ki"  in  these  terms: 
"In  providing  a  system  of  education,  one  trouble 
is  to  secure  proper  respect  for  the  teacher;  when 
such  is  assured,  what  he  teaches  will  also  be  re- 
garded with  respect ;  when  that  is  done,  the  people 
will  know  how  to  respect  learning.  Therefore  is 
it  that  there  are  two  of  his  subjects  whom  the 
ruler  does  not  treat  as  such :  him  who  is  personat- 
ing his  ancestor  at  the  sacrifice,  he  does  not  so 
treat,  nor  yet  his  own  teacher."     (Bk.  xvi.,  17.) 

The  same  book  names  the  following  as  the  ob- 
jects to  be  sought  in  education:  "In  all  learning, 
for  him  who  would  be  an  officer,  the  first  thing 
is  the  knowledge  of  business ;  for  scholars,  the  first 
thing  is  the  directing  of  the  mind."     (Bk.  xvi.,  6.) 

And  it  thus  urges  the  desirability  of  class- work, 
as  affording  abundant  opportunity  for  companion- 
ship, a  just  estimate  of  one's  acquirements  and 
true  culture:  "To  study  alone  and  without  friends 
makes  one  feel  solitary,  uncultivated,  and  but 
little  informed."     (Bk.  xvi.,  12.) 

In  the  same  book,  this  brief  description  of  the 
method  of  Confucius  is  to  be  found:  "The  Master 
taught  them  by  means  of  current  events ;  and  made 
them  understand  what  was  virtuous."  (Bk.  vi., 
sect,  i.,  17.) 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  passages  in  the 
"Analects,"  some  of  which  have  already  been 
quoted  in  other  connections,  that  shed  light  upon 
the  methods  of  teaching  followed  by  Confucius 
and  the  subjects  which  he  taught : 


230  The  Superior  Man 

"The  subjects  on  which  the  Master  did  not 
talk  were  extraordinary  things,  feats  of  strength, 
disorder,  and  spiritual  beings."     (Bk.  vii.,  c.  xx.) 

"There  are  four  things  which  the  Master  taught: 
letters,  ethics,  devotion  of  soul,  and  truthfulness." 
(Bk.  vii.,  c.  xxiv.) 

"The  Master  said,  'Hwuy  gives  me  no  assist- 
ance. There  is  nothing  that  I  say  in  which  he 
does  not  delight.'"     (Bk.  xi.,  c.  iii.) 

"The  Master  said,  'To  those  whose  talents  are 
above  mediocrity  the  highest  subjects  may  be 
announced.  To  those  who  are  below  mediocrity 
the  highest  subjects  may  not  be  announced.'" 
(Bk.  vi.,  c.  xvii.) 

"There  was  Yen  Hwuy;  he  loved  to  learn.  He 
did  not  transfer  his  anger;  he  did  not  repeat  a 
fault."     (Bk.  vi.,  c.  ii.) 

"I  have  talked  with  Hwuy  for  a  whole  day  and 
he  has  not  made  any  objection —quite  as  if  he 
were  stupid.  He  has  retired  and  I  have  examined 
his  conduct  while  out  of  my  sight  and  found  him 
able  to  illustrate  my  teaching.  Hwuy?  He  is  not 
stupid."     (Bk.  ii.,  c.  ix.) 

"The  Master  said  to  Tsze-Kung,  'Which  do 
you  consider  superior,  yourself  or  Hwuy?'  Tsze- 
Kung  replied,  'How  dare  I  compare  myself  with 
Hwuy?  Hwuy  hears  one  point  and  understands 
the  whole  subject ;  I  hear  one  point  and  understand 
the  next. '  The  Master  said,  '  You  are  not  equal 
to  him.  I  grant  you,  you  are  not  equal  to  him. ' " 
(Bk.  v.,  c.  viii.) 


The  State  23  r 

"The  Master's  frequent  themes  of  discourse 
were  the  Odes,  the  History,  and  the  observance  of 
the  rules  of  propriety.  On  all  these  he  frequently 
discoursed."     (Bk.  vii.,  c.  xvii.) 

The  importance  and  indeed  the  necessity  of 
popular  education  Confucius  often  dwelt  upon, 
placing  it  next  after  mere  physical  sustenance  for 
the  people,  as  in  this  passage : 

"When  the  Master  went  to  Wei,  Yen  Yew 
acted  as  driver  of  his  carriage. 

"The  Master  observed,  'How  numerous  are 
the  people!' 

"Yew  said,  'Since  they  are  thus  numerous, 
what  more  shall  be  done  for  them?'  'Make  them 
prosperous'  was  the  reply. 

'"And  when  they  are  prosperous,  what  then 
shall  be  done?'  The  Master  said,  'Instruct 
them.'"     (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  ix.) 

Law   and   Order.     "The  Duke   King,  of  Ts'e, 
asked   Confucius   about   government.     Confucius 
replied,  '  It  is  when  the  prince  is  prince,  the  minis- 
ter is  minister,  the  father  is  father,  the  son  is  son." 
(Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xi.) 

Thus  Confucius  in  the  "Analects"  enjoins  the 
necessity  for  order  in  the  state.  Both  the  things 
requisite  for  the  maintenance  of  good  order  and 
the  conditions  that  lead  to  disorder,  he  thus 
describes  in  another  place:  "When  good  govern- 
ment prevails  in  the  empire,  ceremonies,  music, 
and  punitive  military  expeditions  proceed  from 
the  emperor.     When  bad  government  prevails  in 


232  The  Superior  Man 

the  empire,  ceremonies,  music,  and  punitive  expe- 
ditions proceed  from  the  princes.  When  they  pro- 
ceed from  the  princes,  as  a  rule  the  cases  will  be 
few  in  which  they  do  not  lose  their  power  in  ten 
generations.  When  they  proceed  from  the  great 
officers  of  the  princes,  as  a  rule  the  cases  will  be 
few  in  which  they  do  not  lose  their  power  in  five 
generations.  "When  the  subsidiary  ministers  of 
the  great  officers  hold  in  their  grasp  the  orders  of 
the  kingdom,  as  a  rule  the  cases  will  be  few  in  which 
they  do  not  lose  their  power  in  three  generations." 
(Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  ii.,  v.  I.) 

The  peril  to  the  state  within  which,  in  the  words 
of  the  English  poet,  "wealth  accumulates  and  men 
decay"  was  vividly  present  in  the  sage's  mind,  as 
this  saying  from  the  "Li  Ki"  abundantly  wit- 
nesses: "The  Master  said,  'Under  heaven  the 
cases  are  few  in  which  the  poor  have  enjoyment, 
the  rich  love  the  rules  of  propriety,  and  families 
that  are  powerful  remain  quiet  and  orderly.'" 
(Bk.  xxvii.,  c.  iii.) 

In  the  "Shu  King,"  the  following  declaration 
of  King  Khang  is  to  be  found:  "Families  which 
have  for  generations  enjoyed  places  of  emolument 
seldom  observe  the  rules  of  propriety."  (Pt.  v., 
bk.  xxiv.,  3.) 

And,  also  in  the  "Shu  King,"  the  Duke  of  Kau 
is  represented  as  saying  of  the  evil  effects  some- 
times witnessed,  when  even  a  moderate  amount 
of  unearned  wealth  passes  to  untutored  youth: 
"I  have  observed  among  the  lower  people  that, 


The  State  233 

where  the  parents  have  diligently  laboured  in 
sowing  and  reaping,  their  sons  often  do  not  under- 
stand this  painful  toil,  but  abandon  themselves 
to  ease  and  to  village  slang  and  become  quite 
disorderly."     (Pt.  v.,  bk.  xv.,  1.) 

King  Wu,  however,  one  of  the  almost  mythical 
monarchs  and  heroes  of  the  earlier  period  of  Chi- 
nese history,  yet  more  powerfully  portrays  in  the 
same  book  the  depths  to  which  disorder  and  de- 
moralization may  descend:  "All  who  themselves 
commit  crimes,  robbing,  stealing,  practising  vil- 
lainy and  treachery,  and  who  kill  men  or  violently 
assault  them  to  take  their  property,  being  reck- 
less and  defiant  of  death — these  are  abhorred  by 
all."     (Pt.  v.,  bk.  ix.,  3.) 

The  course  of  one  who  restored  order  in  the 
kingdom  was  thus  warmly  commended  by  Con- 
fucius in  the  "Analects":  "He  carefully  attended 
to  the  weights  and  measures,  examined  the  body 
of  the  laws,  restored  those  who  had  been  unjustly 
removed  from  office;  and  the  good  government 
of  the  empire  took  its  course."  (Bk.  xx.,  c.  i., 
v.6.) 

The  duty  of  care  in  the  selection  of  administra- 
tive officers  is  particularly  enjoined  by  him  as  in 
the  following:  "Employ  first  the  services  of  your 
various  officers,  pardon  small  faults,  and  raise  to 
office  men  of  virtue  and  talents.  Chung-kung 
said,  'How  shall  I  know  the  men  of  virtue  and 
talents,  so  that  I  may  raise  them  to  office?'  He 
was  answered,   'Raise  to  office  those  whom  you 


234  The  Superior  Man 

know.  As  to  those  whom  you  do  not  know,  will 
others  neglect  them?"'  (Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  ii., 
v.  2.) 

This  is  the  sage's  characterization  of  the  course 
of  a  wise  king  in  the  selection  and  discharge  of 
officers:  "He  does  not  cause  the  great  ministers 
to  repine  at  his  not  employing  them.  Without 
some  great  cause,  he  does  not  dismiss  from  their 
offices  the  members  of  old  families.  He  does  not 
seek  in  one  man  talents  for  every  employment." 
(Analects,  bk.  xviii.,  ex.) 

Due  consideration  of  whether  one's  friends  and 
even,  indeed  especially,  one's  relatives  may  not 
be  fit  for  office,  is  not  discouraged  but  instead 
insisted  upon  in  the  same  passage:  "The  Duke 
of  Chow  addressed  his  son,  the  Duke  of  Loo, 
saying,  'The  virtuous  prince  does  not  neglect  his 
relatives.'"     (Analects,  bk.  xviii.,  c.  x.) 

In  favour  of  this  course,  he  urges  the  following 
arguments:  "When  those  who  are  in  high  stations 
perform  well  their  duties  to  their  relatives,  the 
people  are  aroused  to  virtue.  When  old  friends 
are  not  neglected  by  them,  the  people  are  pre- 
served from  meanness."  (Analects,  bk.  viii., 
c.  ii.,  v.  2.) 

The  acceptance  of  office  for  "what  there  is  in 
it"  or  otherwise  than  as  a  sacred  trust,  he  thus 
denounces:  "Heen  asked  what  is  shameful.  The 
Master  said,  'When  good  government  prevails 
in  a  state,  to  be  thinking  only  of  one's  salary; 
and  when  bad  government  prevails,  to  be  think- 


The  State  235 

ing,  in  the  same  way,  only  of  one's  salary.  This 
is  shameful.'"     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  i.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  Confucius  is  quoted  as  saying 
that  it  is  safer  and  better  in  every  way  to  wait 
until  a  man's  death  to  confer  any  special  honour 
upon  him,  thus:  "The  Master  said,  'When  honours 
and  rewards  are  first  conferred  upon  the  dead  and 
afterward  upon  the  living,  people  will  not  depart 
from  the  course  of  the  honoured  dead.'"  (Bk. 
xxvii.,  10.) 

That  both  the  ruler  and  his  ministers  are  subject 
to  and  should  be  governed  by  the  elemental  prin- 
ciples of  right  and  wrong,  which  are  of  universal 
obligation,  he  here  affirms:  "A  prince  should  em- 
ploy his  ministers  according  to  the  rules  of  pro- 
priety; ministers  should  serve  their  prince  with 
faithfulness."     (Analects,  bk.  iii.,  c.  xix.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  this  caution  to  ministers  and 
public  officers  is  given:  "Affairs  of  state  should 
not  be  privately  discussed."  (Bk.  i.,  sect,  iii., 
pt.  i.) 

In  the  "Shu  King"  are  found  these  instruc- 
tions, among  others,  for  the  judges  of  the  criminal 
courts:  "It  is  not  persons  with  crafty  tongues 
who  should  try  criminal  cases,  but  persons  who 
are  really  good,  whose  judgments  will  exemplify 
the  due  mean.  Watch  carefully  for  discrepancies 
in  statements;  the  view  you  intended  not  to  adopt, 
you  may  find  reason  to  adopt.  With  pity  and 
reverence  determine  the  issues;  painstakingly 
consult  the  penal  code;  give  ear  to  all  respecting 


236  The  Superior  Man 

the  matter — to  the  end  that  your  judgment  may 
exemplify  the  due  mean,  whether  in  imposing  a 
fine  or  another  punishment,  by  careful  investiga- 
tion and  the  solution  of  every  difficulty.  When 
the  trial  has  such  an  event,  all  will  acknowledge 
that  the  judgment  is  just;  and  so  likewise  will  the 
sovereign  do,  when  the  report  reaches  him." 
(Pt.  v.,  bk.  xxvii.,  5.) 

The  same  book  lays  down  this  discriminating 
fundamental  for  the  administration  of  justice, 
recognizing  that  criminality  consists  in  intent: 
"You  pardon  inadvertent  faults,  however  great; 
and  punish  purposed  crimes,  however  small." 
(Pt.  ii.,  bk.  ii.,  2.) 

Another  passage  of  this  ancient  book  asserts 
in  words  ascribed  to  Kau-Yau,  speaking  to  Shun, 
a  maxim  of  criminal  justice  which  many  suppose 
to  be  peculiar  to  its  administration  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  countries:  "Rather  than  put  an  innocent 
person  to  death,  you  will  run  the  risk  of  irregular- 
ity and  error."     (Pt.  ii.,  bk.  ii.,  2.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  following  passage  describes 
the  emoluments  of  public  officers,  indicating  the 
use  of  "standards  of  value"  much  less  subject 
to  fluctuation  than  the  precious  metals:  "The 
officers  of  the  lowest  grade  in  the  feudal  states 
received  salary  sufficient  to  feed  nine  individuals; 
those  of  the  second  grade,  enough  to  feed  eighteen ; 
and  those  of  the  highest,  enough  for  thirty-six. 
A  great  officer  could  feed  72  individuals,  a  minister 
288,  and  the  ruler  2880,     .In  a  state  of  the  second 


The  State  237 

class,  a  minister  could  feed  216,  and  the  ruler  2160. 
A  minister  of  a  small  state  could  feed  144  individ- 
uals and  the  ruler  1440."      (Bk.  iii.,  sect,  v.,  24.) 

There  were  also  restrictions  in  those  days  upon 
the  military  defence  and  equipment  of  states  and 
cities,  intended  to  keep  down  the  spirit  of  domina- 
tion and  to  avoid  revolt.  The  "Li  Ki"  thus 
describes  these  laws:  "Hence  it  was  made  the 
rule  that  no  state  should  have  more  than  1000 
chariots,  no  chief  city's  wall  more  than  100  em- 
brasures, no  family  more  than  100  chariots,  how- 
ever opulent.  These  regulations  were  intended 
for  the  protection  of  the  people;  yet  some  of  the 
governors  of  states  rebelled  against  them."  (Bk. 
xxvii.,  3.) 

The  foregoing  are  some  of  the  more  important 
of  the  things  which  Confucius  and  the  ancients 
before  him  deemed  prerequisite  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  good  order  throughout  the  nation.  The 
breadth  and  depth  of  statesmanship  required  are 
even  better  set  forth  in  this  saying  of  Confucius: 
"The  superior  man  governs  men  according  to 
their  nature,  with  what  is  proper  to  them." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xiii.,  v.  21.) 

With  greater  circumstantiality,  yet  in  a  very 
brief  compass,  he  sets  forth  the  prerequisites  anew 
in  this  sentence:  "To  rule  a  country  of  a  thousand 
chariots,  there  must  be  reverent  attention  to  busi- 
ness, and  sincerity;  economy  in  expenditure,  and 
love  for  men;  and  the  employment  of  the  people 
at  the  proper  seasons."     (Analects,  bk.  i.,  c.  v.) 


238  The  Superior  Man 

The  course  of  wisdom  when  there  is  not  good 
government,  he  marks  out  as  follows:  "When 
good  government  prevails  in  a  state,  language  may 
be  lofty  and  bold,  and  actions  the  same.  When 
bad  government  prevails,  the  actions  may  be 
lofty  and  bold,  but  the  language  may  be  with 
some  reserve."     (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  iv.) 

The  manner  in  which  a  state  may  crumble  and 
decay  and  therefore  succumb  to  superior  force 
and  pass  away,  Mencius  thus  describes:  "A  man 
must  first  despise  himself  and  then  others  will 
despise  him.  A  family  must  first  destroy  itself 
and  then  others  will  destroy  it,  A  kingdom  must 
first  strike  down  itself  and  then  others  will  strike 
it  down."     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  viii.,  v.  4.) 

Duty  Respecting  Acceptance  of  Office.  "When 
right  principles  of  government  prevail  in  the  em- 
pire, he  will  show  himself;  when  they  are  pro- 
strated, he  will  keep  retired."  (Analects,  bk.  viii., 
c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

In  the  "Analects,"  Confucius  thus  described 
the  duty  of  the  superior  man  as  regards  accepting 
office  and  retiring  from  it.  The  following,  to  like 
effect,  is  attributed,  in  the  "Analects,"  to  Tsze- 
chang:  "The  minister,  Tsze-wan,  thrice  took  office 
and  manifested  no  joy  in  his  countenance.  Thrice 
he  retired  from  office  and  manifested  no  displeasure. 
He  made  it  a  point  to  inform  the  new  minister 
of  the  way  in  which  he  had  conducted  the  govern- 
ment."    (Bk.  v.,  c.  xviii.,  v.  1.) 

Confucius  again  gave  voice  to  the  same  senti- 


The  State  239 

ment  in  this:  "When  good  government  prevails 
in  the  state,  he  is  to  be  found  in  office.  When 
bad  government  prevails,  he  can  roll  his  principles 
up  and  keep  them  in  his  breast."  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  xi.,  v.  2.) 

Indeed,  he  proclaimed  it  the  part  of  a  wise  and 
prudent  man  to  quit  a  badly  governed  state  forth- 
with: "Such  an  one  will  not  enter  a  tottering 
state  nor  dwell  in  a  disorganized  one."  (Analects, 
bk.  viii.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

Yet  he  quoted  with  warm  approval  the  follow- 
ing reply  of  Hwuy,  when  reproved  for  remaining 
in  a  state  which  had  dismissed  him  for  acting  the 
part  of  a  righteous  judge:  "Hwuy  of  Lew-hea, 
being  chief  criminal  judge,  was  thrice  dismissed 
from  office.  Someone  said  to  him,  '  Is  it  not  time 
for  you,  sir,  to  quit  the  country?'  He  replied, 
1  Serving  men  in  an  upright  way,  where  shall  I  go 
and  not  experience  such  a  thrice-repeated  dis- 
missal? If  I  chose  to  serve  men  in  a  crooked  way, 
what  need  would  there  be  that  I  leave  the  country 
of  my  parents?'"     (Analects,  bk.  xviii.,  c.  ii.) 

The  border-warden  at  E,  having  interviewed 
Confucius  after  the  latter  had  been  deprived  of 
office,  announced:  "My  friends,  why  are  you  dis- 
tressed by  your  Master's  loss  of  office?  The 
empire  has  long  been  without  principles;  Heaven 
is  going  to  use  your  Master  as  a  wooden-tongued 
bell."     (Analects,  bk.  iii.,  c.  xxiv.) 

Confucius,  however,  held  it  to  be  no  part  of  the 
duty  of  an  officer  who  has  been  discharged,  to  air 


240  The  Superior  Man 

his  grievances  and  criticize  his  successor,  as  witness 
these  words,  spoken  to  Yen  Yuen:  "The  Master 
said  to  Yen  Yuen,  'When  called  to  office,  to  un- 
dertake its  duties ;  when  not  so  called,  to  lie  retired, 
— it  is  only  I  and  you  who  have  attained  to  this!'" 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  x.,  v.  I.) 

And  at  another  time  he  spoke  even  more  to  the 
point  in  this  fashion:  "He  who  is  not  in  a  par- 
ticular office  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  plan  for 
the  administration  of  its  duties."  (Analects,  bk. 
viii.,  c.  xiv.) 

Acceptance  of  retirement  from  office,  absolute 
acquiescence  in  it,  even  warm  welcome  of  it  and 
refusal  to  accept  even  the  most  exalted  official 
station  were  warmly  commended,  as  in  this: 
"The  Master  said,  'T'ao-pih  may  be  said  to  have 
reached  the  highest  point  in  virtuous  action. 
Thrice  he  declined  the  empire,  and  the  people 
could  not  express  their  approbation  of  his  con- 
duct.'"    (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  i.) 

Yet  service  and  even  ambition  to  be  called  to 
public  service  were  recommended  to  his  disciples, 
as  in  this:  "When  you  are  living  in  any  state,  take 
service  with  the  most  worthy  among  its  great 
officers  and  make  friends  with  the  most  virtuous 
among  its  scholars."     (Analects,  bk.  xv.,  c.  ix.) 

And  his  disciple,  Tsze-Loo,  holds  that,  when 
called  to  office  and  conscious  of  ability  to  render 
valuable  service,  the  superior  man  is  obliged  to 
respond,  albeit  both  against  his  inclination  and 
against  his  judgment,  in  that  the  conditions  will 


The  State  241 

not  permit  thorough  reform:  "Not  to  take  office 
is  wrong.  If  the  relations  between  old  and  young 
may  not  be  neglected,  how  is  it  that  he  sets  aside 
the  duties  that  should  be  observed  between  the 
sovereign  and  the  minister?  Wishing  to  main- 
tain his  personal  purity,  he  allows  that  great  rela- 
tion to  come  to  confusion.  A  superior  man  takes 
office  and  performs  the  righteous  duties  belonging 
to  it.  As  to  the  failure  of  right  principles  to 
make  progress,  he  is  aware  of  that."  (Analects, 
bk.  xviii.,  c.  vii.,  v.  5.) 

Government  Is  by  the  Consent  of  the  Governed. 
"By  winning  the  people,  the  kingdom  is  won;  by 
losing  the  people,  the  kingdom  is  lost."  (Great 
Learning,  c.  x.,  v.  5.) 

This  statement  taken  from  "The  Great  Learn- 
ing" is  characteristic  of  the  view  of  Confucius 
concerning  government.  It  was  already  old  in 
his  time,  however;  for  in  the  "Shu  King,"  the 
following  is  quoted  among  the  most  ancient  "Cau- 
tions of  the  Great  Yu":  "The  people  are  the  root 
of  a  country."     (Pt.  hi.,  bk.  iii.) 

And  in  the  same  book,  the  great  ruler,  Shun, 
is  reported  as  saying:  "Of  all  who  are  to  be  feared, 
are  not  the  people  the  chief?"     (Pt.  ii.,  bk.  ii.,  2.) 

Mencius  gives  much  fuller  and  more  detailed 
expression  to  the  view  in  this  passage:  "That  Kee 
and  Chow  lost  the  empire  arose  from  their  losing 
the  people;  to  lose  the  people  means  to  lose  their 
hearts.  There  is  a  way  to  get  the  empire — get 
the  people  and  it  is  yours.  There  is  a  way  to 
16 


242  The  Superior  Man 

get  the  people— win  their  hearts  and  they  are 
yours.  There  is  a  way  to  win  their  hearts — simply 
procure  for  them  what  they  like  and  lay  not  upon 
them  what  they  do  not  like.  The  people  turn  to 
a  benevolent  government  as  water  flows  down  hill 
and  as  wild  beasts  flee  to  the  wilderness."  (Bk. 
iv.,  pt.  i.,  c.  ix.,  v.  I,  2.) 

The  following  concerning  the  truly  royal  ruler 
is  quoted  in  "The  Great  Learning":  "When  he 
loves  what  the  people  love  and  hates  what  the 
people  hate,  then  is  a  ruler  what  is  called  the 
parent  of  his  people."     (C.  x.,  v.  3.) 

That  the  sage  did  not  mean  thereby  to  commend 
the  acts  of  the  demagogue,  which  are  also  vain, 
Mencius  indicates  in  this  brief  saying:  "If  a  gov- 
ernor will  please  everyone,  he  will  find  the  days 
not  sufficient."     (Bk.  iv.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ii.,  v.  5.) 

Yet  to  King  Hwuy,  of  Leang,  he  thus  presents 
the  reward  for  protecting  and  serving  the  people : 
"Those  rulers,  as  it  were,  drive  their  people  into 
pitfalls  and  drown  them.  Your  Majesty  will  go 
to  punish  them.  In  such  a  case,  who  will  oppose 
Your  Majesty?"     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i.,  c.  v.,  v.  5.) 

Ch'eng  Tang,  in  the  "Shu  King,"  thus  attributes 
all  wisdom  to  the  people  and  invariable  correct- 
ness to  their  deliberate  choice:  "The  great  God 
has  conferred  on  the  common  people  a  moral  sense, 
compliance  with  which  would  show  their  nature 
invariably  right."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  hi.,  2.) 

In  the  "Shi  King"  the  same  view  is  expressed 
in  these  words:  "Heaven,  in  giving  birth  to  the 


The  State  243 

multitude  of  the  people,  to  every  faculty  and 
relationship  annexed  its  law.  The  people  possess 
this  normal  nature,  and  they  love  normal  virtue." 
(Major  Odes,  ode  6,  decade  iii.) 

And  in  the  "Shu  King"  I  Yin  expatiates  upon 
it  more  at  length  as  follows:  "There  is  no  invari- 
able model  of  virtue;  a  supreme  regard  for  what 
is  good  makes  a  model  for  it.  There  is  no  in- 
variable characteristic  of  what  is  good  that  is  to 
be  supremely  regarded;  it  is  found  where  there  is 
a  conformity  with  the  common  consciousness  as 
to  what  is  good."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  vi.,  3.) 

Mencius  unhesitatingly  applied  this  in  the  most 
democratic  manner,  as  in  this:  "If  the  people  of 
Yen  will  be  pleased  at  your  taking  possession  of 
it,  do  so.  Among  the  ancients  one  acted  upon 
this  principle,  King  Wu.  If  the  people  of  Yen 
will  not  be  pleased  at  your  taking  possession  of  it, 
do  not  do  so.  Among  the  ancients  one  acted 
upon  this  principle,  King  Wan."  (Bk.  i.,  pt.  i., 
c.  x.,  v.  3.) 

But  he  does  not  content  himself  merely  with 
citing  precedents  in  the  conduct  of  the  half- 
mythical  fathers;  instead,  as  in  his  conversation 
with  King  Seang,  of  Leang,  he  boldly  affirmed  the 
fundamental  principle  that  the  people  are  the 
sole  source  of  power: 

"'How  can  the  empire  be  settled?' 

"'It  will  be  settled  by  being  imited  under  one 
sway. ' 

'"Who  can  so  unite  it?' 


244  The  Superior  Man 

"  'He  who  has  no  pleasure  in  killing  men  can 
so  unite  it. ' 

"  'Who  can  give  it  to  him?' 

"  'All  the  people  of  the  empire  will  unanimously 
give  it  to  him.'  "  (Mencius,  bk.  i.,  c.  vi.,  v.  2,  3, 
4.  5,  6.) 

That  merit  produces  the  confidence  of  the 
people  in  their  ruler  and  thereby  secures  for  him 
his  throne,  Mencius  asserts  in  this  conversation, 
which  has  come  down  to  us : 

"Wan  Chang  asked,  'Is  it  true  that  Yaou  gave 
the  empire  to  Shun?' 

"Mencius  answered:  'No.  The  emperor  can- 
not give  the  empire  to  another. ' 

"  'Yes,  but  Shun  got  the  empire.  Who  gave 
it  to  him?' 

"  'Heaven  gave  it  to  him. ' 

"  'Heaven  gave  it  to  him?  Did  Heaven  confer 
this  appointment  upon  him  in  express  terms?' 

"'No.  Heaven  does  not  speak.  It  simply 
showed  its  will  by  his  personal  behaviour  and  his 
management  of  affairs.'"  (Bk.  v.,  pt.  i.,  c.  v., 
v.  1,  2,  3,  4.) 

The  divine  right  of  kings  he  did  not  deny; 
instead  he  proclaimed  it,  but  only  with  this  ex- 
planation, taken  from  an  ancient  source:  "This 
sentiment  is  expressed  in  the  words  of  the  Great 
Declaration:  'Heaven  sees  as  my  people  see; 
Heaven  hears  as  my  people  hear.'  "  (Bk.  v.,  pt. 
i.,  c.  v.,  v.  8.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  it  is  even  related  that  in  earlier 


The  State  245 

days  all  was  democratic,  thus:   "There  was  no 
where  such  a  thing  as  being  born  noble.  .  .  .  An- 
ciently, there  was  no  rank  in  birth  and  no  honorary 
title  after  death."     (Bk.  ix.,  sect,  iii.,  5.) 

In  the  same  book,  the  existence  of  a  hereditary 
monarchy  is  deplored  as  a  sign  of  degeneration, 
in  these  words:  "Now  that  the  Grand  Course  has 
fallen  into  disuse  and  obscurity,  the  kingdom  is  a 
family  inheritance."     (Bk.  vii.,  sect,  i.,  3.) 

The  Right  to  Depose  the  Ruler.  "Tsze-loo 
asked  how  a  sovereign  should  be  served.  The 
Master  said:  'Do  not  impose  on  him,  and,  more- 
over, withstand  him  to  his  face. ' '  (Analects, 
bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxiii.) 

In  another  place  in  the  "Analects,"  however, 
the  disciple,  Tsze-hea,  explains  the  requisite 
foundation  for  such  boldness  of  conduct,  thus: 
"Having  obtained  the  confidence  of  his  prince, 
he  may  then  remonstrate  with  him.  If  he  have 
not  gained  his  confidence,  the  prince  will  think 
that  he  is  vilifying  him."     (Bk.  xix.,  c.  x.) 

Mencius  thus  characterizes  this  friendly,  though 
perilous  action:  "It  was  then  that  the  Che-shaou 
and  Keo-shaou  were  made,  in  the  poetry  of  which 
it  was  said:  'What  blame  is  there  for  restraining 
one's  prince?  He  who  restrains  his  prince  is  his 
friend.'"     (Bk.  I,  pt.  ii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  10.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  this  duty  of  the  minister  is  yet 
more  circumstantially  described,  as  follows:  "One 
in  the  position  of  a  minister  and  inferior  might 
remonstrate  with  his  ruler,  but  not  speak  ill  of 


246  The  Superior  Man 

him;  might  withdraw  but  not  remain  and  hate; 
might  praise  but  not  flatter;  might  remonstrate 
but  not  give  himself  haughty  airs  when  his  advice 
is  followed.  If  the  ruler  were  idle  and  indifferent, 
he  might  arouse  and  assist  him ;  if  the  government 
were  going  to  wreck,  he  might  sweep  it  away  and 
institute  a  new  one."     (Bk.  xv.,  21.) 

Neither  Confucius  nor  Mencius  avoided  this 
duty  of  protest  and  of  rebuke.  The  following 
from  Mencius  is  an  instance : 

'"Suppose  the  chief  criminal  judge  could  not 
regulate  the  officers;  how  would  you  deal  with 
him?' 

"The  king  said:  'Dismiss  him.' 

"'If  within  the  four  borders  of  your  kingdom 
there  is  not  good  government,  what  is  to  be  done?' 

"The  king  looked  to  the  right  and  left,  and  spoke 
of  other  matters."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  vi.,  v.  2,  3.) 

Yet  in  the  "Analects"  this  is  found,  by  way 
of  warning:  "Tsze-Yew  said:  'In  serving  one's 
prince,  frequent  remonstrances  lead  to  disgrace.'" 
(Bk.  iv.,  c.  xxvi.) 

The  estimate  which  the  people,  however,  place 
upon  the  contrary  course  is  well  set  forth  in  this: 
"The  Master  said:  'The  full  observance  of  the 
rules  of  propriety  in  serving  one's  prince  [i.e.,  by 
himself,  Confucius]  is  accounted  by  the  people 
to  be  flattery.'"     (Analects,  bk.  iii.,  c.  xviii.) 

Confucius  offers  this  counsel  to  the  great  minis- 
ter who  finds  his  mild  persuasion  and  counsel 
rejected:  "What  is  called  a  great  minister  is  one 


The  State  247 

who  serves  his  prince  according  to  what  is  right, 
and  when  he  finds  he  cannot  do  so,  retires." 
(Analects,  bk.  xi.,  c.  xxiii.,  v.  3.) 

Mencius  advises  a  more  Spartan  course  on 
the  part  of  a  monarch's  relatives  if  he  proves 
impracticable,  thus: 

"The  king  said:  'I  beg  to  ask  about  the  chief 
ministers  who  are  noble  and  related  to  the  prince.' 

"Mencius  answered:   'If  the  prince  have  great 
faults,  they  ought  to  remonstrate  with  him;  and, 
if  he  do  not  listen  to  them  after  they  have  done 
so  again  and  again,  they  ought  to  depose  him. 
(Bk.  v.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  ix.,  v.  I.) 

Mencius  thus  justified  even  regicide,  when  the 
circumstances  call  for  it: 

"KingSeuen  of  Ts'e  asked:  'Is  it  true  that 
T'ang  banished  Kee  and  that  King  Wu  slew  Chow? ' 

"Mencius  replied:  'History  tells  us  so.' 

"The  king  asked:  'May  a  minister  put  his 
sovereign  to  death?' 

"Mencius  said:  'He  who  outrages  benevolence 
is  called  a  robber;  he  who  outrages  righteousness, 
is  called  a  ruffian.  The  robber  and  ruffian  we 
call  a  mere  fellow.  I  have  heard  of  the  execution 
of  the  fellow,  Chow,  but  I  have  not  so  heard  of 
one's  sovereign  being  put  to  death."  (Bk.  i., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  viii.) 


CHAPTER  VI 

CULTIVATION   OF  THE  FINE  ARTS 

Confucius  held  that  the  encouragement  of  the 
fine  arts  was  no  less  a  duty  of  the  state  than 
the  protection  of  the  people  from  foreign  foes  and 
the  suppression  of  internal  disorder. 

The  Fine  Arts  in  General.  ' '  When  good  govern- 
ment prevails  in  the  empire,  ceremonies,  music, 
and  punitive  military  expeditions  proceed  from 
the  emperor."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  h\,  v.  I.) 

This  saying  of  Confucius,  recorded  in  the  "Ana- 
lects" and  suggesting  that  wise  patronage  and 
encouragement  of  art  by  the  government  which 
has  distinguished  the  most  enlightened  govern- 
ments of  ancient  and  of  modern  times,  was  re- 
enforced  without  ceasing  by  Mencius  when  he 
rebuked  princes  who  indulged  themselves,  but 
failed  to  share  their  pleasures  with  the  meanest 
citizen.  Thus  he  said:  "If  the  people  are  not 
able  to  enjoy  themselves,  they  condemn  them 
that  are  over  them.  Thus  to  condemn  their 
superiors  when  they  cannot  enjoy  themselves  is 
wrong;  but  when  they  that  are  over  the  people 
do  not  make  pleasure  a  thing  common  to  all  as 

248 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      249 

to  themselves,  they  also  do  wrong."     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii., 
c.  iv.,  v.  i,  2.) 

And  again,  speaking  of  beauty  in  woman:  "If 
Your  Majesty  loves  beauty,  let  the  people  be  able 
to  gratify  the  same  feeling!"     (Bk.  i.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  v., 

v.  50 

Confucius  repeatedly  emphasized  the  impor- 
tance of  the  cultivation  of  the  arts,  as  when  he 
said  of  himself:  "When  I  had  no  official  employ- 
ment, I  acquired  many  arts."  (Analects,  bk.  ix., 
c.  vi.,  v.  4.)  Among  these  were,  of  course,  letters 
in  which  he  excelled  all  others,  ceremonies  in  which 
he  had  no  peer,  and  music  in  which  he  was  also 
trained,  both  as  a  critic  and  as  a  performer. 

To  others  he  gave  this  counsel:  "Let  relaxation 
and  enjoyment  be  found  in  the  polite  arts!" 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  vi.,  v.  4.)  "It  is  by  the 
Odes  that  the  mind  is  aroused.  It  is  by  the  rules 
of  propriety  that  the  character  is  established." 
(Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  1,  2.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  is  this  admonition:  "A  scholar 
should  constantly  pursue  what  is  virtuous  and 
find  recreation  in  the  arts."     (Bk.  xv.,  v.  22.) 

His  disciples  related  of  him:  "The  Master's 
frequent  themes  of  discourse  were:  the  Odes, 
History,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  rules  of  pro- 
priety." (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xvii.)  "There 
were  four  things  which  the  Master  taught :  letters, 
ethics,  devotion  of  soul,  and  truthfulness."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  vii.,  c.  xxiv.) 

The  following  disjointed  passages,  apropos  of 


250  The  Superior  Man 

nothing  else  in  common,  indicate  the  appreciation 
by  the  sage  of  aesthetic  values  of  the  most  varied 
character:  "I  have  not  seen  one  who  loves  virtue 
as  he  loves  beauty."  (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xvii., 
and  bk.  xv.,  c.  xii.)  "The  Master,  standing  by  a 
stream,  remarked:  'It  flows  on  like  this,  never 
ceasing,  day  and  night!'"  (Analects,  bk.  ix., 
c.  xvi.)  "Is  it  not  delightful  to  have  friends 
coming  from  distant  quarters?"  (Analects,  bk.  i., 
c.  i.,  v.  2.)  "The  wise  find  pleasure  in  water,  the 
virtuous  find  pleasure  in  hills."  (Analects,  bk.  vi., 
c.  xxi.)  "I  hate  the  manner  in  which  purple  takes 
away  the  lustre  of  vermilion.  I  hate  the  way  in 
which  the  songs  of  Ch'ing  confound  the  music  of 
the  Gna."     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xviii.) 

The  foregoing  reference  to  colour  implies  appre- 
ciation of  painting  which,  however,  is  seldom,  if 
ever,  referred  to  and  seems  to  have  been  in  an 
undeveloped  state,  compared,  for  instance,  with 
poetry  or  music.  The  following  from  the  "Ana- 
lects" appears  to  refer  to  it,  however:  "Tsze-hea 
asked,  saying,  'What  is  the  meaning  of  the  pas- 
sage: "The  pretty  dimples  of  her  artful  smile! 
The  well-defined  black  and  white  of  her  eye !  The 
plain  ground  for  the  colours!"?'  The  Master 
answered:  'The  business  of  laying  on  the  colours 
follows  the  preparation  of  the  plain  ground. " 
(Bk.  iii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  I,  2.) 

The  value  of  beauty  for  beauty's  sake,  even 
though  it  be  but  the  beauty  of  ornament  or  of 
accomplishments,    was   enforced    by    Tsze-kung, 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts       251 

one  of  his  disciples,  in  this  colloquy:  "Kih  Tsze- 
shing  asked :  '  In  a  superior  man  it  is  only  the  sub- 
stantial qualities  that  are  wanted;  why  should  we 
seek  for  ornamental  accomplishments?'  Tsze- 
kung  replied:  'Alas!  your  words,  sir,  show  you  to 
be  a  superior  man;  but  four  horses  cannot  over- 
take the  tongue.  Ornament  is  as  substance;  sub- 
stance is  as  ornament.  The  hide  of  a  tiger  or 
leopard  stripped  of  its  hair  is  like  the  hide  of  a 
dog  or  goat  stripped  of  its  hair.'"  (Analects, 
bk.  xii.,  c.  vii.) 

That  it  will  be  beneficial  for  a  state  to  encourage 
and  foster  the  arts,  because  of  their  civilizing 
effect  upon  the  people,  these  words  from  the  "Li 
Ki"  may  be  quoted  to  illustrate:  "Confucius 
said :  '  When  you  enter  a  state  you  can  know  what 
subjects  have  been  taught.  If  they  show  them- 
selves men  who  are  mild  and  gentle,  sincere  and 
good,  they  have  been  taught  from  the  Book  of 
Poetry.  ...  If  they  be  big-hearted  and  generous, 
bland  and  honest,  they  have  been  taught  from 
the  Book  of  Music.'"     (Bk.  xxiii.,  I.) 

Poetry  and  Letters.  "In  the  Book  of  Poetry 
are  three  hundred  pieces,  but  the  design  of  them 
all  may  be  embraced  in  one  sentence:  'Have  no 
depraved  thoughts!'"     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  ii.) 

The  importance  of  poetry  and  of  good  literature 
in  general  was  frequently  emphasized  as  in  this 
passage  from  the  "Analects"  by  Confucius  who 
on  one  occasion  addressed  his  disciples,  saying: 
"My  children,  why  do  you  not  study  the  Book  of 


252  The  Superior  Man 

Poetry?  The  Odes  serve  to  stimulate  the  mind. 
They  may  be  used  for  purposes  of  self-contempla- 
tion. They  teach  the  art  of  companionship. 
They  show  how  to  moderate  feelings  of  resent- 
ment. From  them  you  learn  the  more  immediate 
duty  of  serving  one's  father  and  the  remoter  duty 
of  serving  one's  prince."     (Bk.  xvii.,  c.  ix.) 

Mencius  seems  to  have  been  the  earliest  to  make 
use  of  this  metaphor  in  describing  the  delights  and 
benefits  of  reading:  "When  a  scholar  feels  that 
his  friendship  with  all  the  virtuous  scholars  of  the 
empire  is  not  sufficient,  he  proceeds  to  ascend  to 
consider  the  men  of  antiquity.  He  repeats  their 
poems  and  reads  their  books  and,  as  he  does  not 
know  what  they  were  as  men,  to  ascertain  this, 
he  considers  the  conditions  of  their  time.  This  is 
to  ascend  and  make  them  his  friends."  (Bk.  v., 
pt.  ii.,  c.  viii.,  v.  2.) 

The  manner  in  which  Confucius  enjoined  the 
study  of  poetry  upon  his  eldest  son  is  told  in  this 
conversation  with  Ch'in  K'ang:  "Ch'in  K'ang 
asked  Pih-yu,  saying,  '  Have  you  had  any  lessons 
from  your  father  different  from  what  we  have  all 
heard?'  Pih-yu  replied :  'No.  He  was  standing 
alone  once,  when  I  passed  below  the  hall  with 
hasty  steps,  and  said  to  me :  '  Have  you  learned 
the  Odes?"  On  my  replying,  "Not  yet,"  he 
added:  "If  you  do  not  learn  the  Odes,  you  will 
not  be  fit  to  converse  with."  I  retired  and  studied 
the  Odes.'"     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  I,  2.) 

That  learning  should  not  be  merely  by  rote,  that 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      253 

the  sentiments  and  thoughts  of  the  poet  must  be 
made  a  part  of  a  man's  self,  and  that  all  training 
should  be  with  a  view  to  use  as  well  as  ornament, 
Confucius  set  forth  in  these  words:  "Though  a 
man  may  be  able  to  recite  the  three  hundred 
Odes,  yet  if,  when  intrusted  with  a  governmental 
charge,  he  knows  not  how  to  act  or  if,  when  sent 
to  any  quarter  on  a  mission,  he  cannot  give  his 
replies  unassisted,  then  notwithstanding  the  ex- 
tent of  his  learning,  of  what  practical  use  is  it?" 
(Analects,  bk.  xiii.,  c.  v.) 

The  finely  discriminating  literary  taste  of  Con- 
fucius was  the  marvel  of  his  time  and  his  canons 
are  yet  generally  accepted.  He  is  even  repre- 
sented as  saying  of  himself,  in  all  modesty:  "In 
letters  I  am  perhaps  equal  to  other  men."  (Ana- 
lects, bk.  vii.,  c.  xxxii.)  Still  his  views  were  of 
the  simplest,  the  most  naive.  Thus,  for  instance, 
he  says,  tersely:  "Of  language,  it  is  sufficient  that 
it  convey  the  meaning."     (Analects,  bk.,  xv.,  c.  xl.) 

Yet,  well  pondered,  this  saying  is  both  true  and 
discerning;  for  comprehensive  and  accurate  con- 
veyance of  the  precise  meaning  in  its  every  shade 
and  distinction  is  the  office  of  the  most  consum- 
mate literary  art. 

When  Confucius  was  in  Wei  and  was  asked, 
by  Tsze-loo,  his  pupil,  what  he  would  consider  the 
first  thing  to  do  in  administering  the  government 
of  Wei,  he  replied:  "What  is  first  necessary  is  to 
correct  names,"  i.  e.,  the  names  of  things,  and  said 
in  explanation :  "  If  names  be  not  correct,  language 


254  The  Superior  Man 

is  not  in  accordance  with  the  truth  of  things." 
(Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  iii.) 

The  mischiefs  which  arise  from  miscomprehen- 
sion, due  to  the  inexact  use  of  language,  he  painted 
in  strong  colours,  and  then  said:  "Therefore  the 
superior  man  considers  it  necessary  that  the  names 
he  uses  may  be  rightly  spoken,  so  that  what  he 
says  may  be  fulfilled  to  the  letter.  What  the  su- 
perior man  requires  is  just  that  in  his  language 
there  may  be  nothing  inaccurate."  (Analects, 
bk.  xiii.,  c.  iii.,  v.  7.) 

That  a  man's  diction  should  also  be  guarded 
against  inelegance  and  coarseness,  the  disciple 
Tsang  declares  in  this:  "There  are  three  principles 
of  conduct  which  the  man  of  high  rank  should 
consider  especially  important :  that  in  his  deport- 
ment and  manner  he  keep  from  violence  and  heed- 
lessness; that  in  regulating  his  countenance  he 
keep  near  to  sincerity ;  that  in  his  words  and  tones 
he  keep  far  from  lowness  and  impropriety." 
(Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  iv.,  v.  3.) 

The  emphasis  upon  "far"  is  worthy  of  special 
note. 

Certainly  Confucius  was  so  completely  removed 
from  ignoring  the  beauties  and  even  the  subtleties 
of  style,  that  he  was  the  most  eminent  of  all  the 
Chinese  ancients  for  simplicity,  purity,  elegance, 
and  exactitude  of  language,  both  spoken  and  writ- 
ten. He  had,  also,  the  conception  that  it  is  only  he 
who  can  discriminate  finely  between  expressions 
that  can  divine  the  thought  from  the  spoken  or 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      255 

written  word  or  even  from  the  act,  fully,  accu- 
rately, and  clearly;  and  therefore  he  says:  "With- 
out knowing  words,  it  is  impossible  to  know  men." 
(Analects,  bk.  xx.,  c.  iii.,  v.  3.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  is  thus  described  the  accepted 
manner  of  elegant  speech :  "The  style  prized  in  con- 
versation is  that  it  should  be  grave  and  distinct." 
(Bk.  xv.,  23.) 

The  usefulness  of  letters  and  of  association  with 
men  of  literary  taste,  in  forming  character  and 
confirming  it,  the  disciple  Tsang  set  forth  as  fol- 
lows :  "The  superior  man  on  literary  grounds  meets 
with  his  friends  and  by  their  friendship  helps  his 
virtue."     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  xxiii.) 

And  the  inadequacy  of  both  the  written  and  the 
spoken  word  to  express  the  highest,  noblest,  and 
sublimest  thought,  is  set  forth  in  this  saying  of 
Confucius,  taken  from  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix 
iii.,  sect,  i.,  c.  xii.,  76):  "The  written  characters 
are  not  the  full  exponent  of  speech  and  speech  is 
not  the  full  expression  of  ideas." 

Music.  "  Music  produces  pleasure  which  human 
nature  cannot  be  without."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii., 
sect,  iii.)  "Virtue  is  the  strong  stem  of  human 
nature  and  music  is  the  blossoming  of  virtue." 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  21.) 

These  eloquent  tributes  to  both  the  charm  and 
the  usefulness  of  music  are  from  the  "Li  Ki,"  in 
which  much  attention  is  given  to  this  fascinating 
art,  which  seems  to  have  been  developed  in  ancient 
China  far  beyond  any  other  of  the  fine  arts. 


256  The  Superior  Man 

This  is  the  more  remarkable  since  in  these  days 
Chinese  music  is  rightly  regarded  of  a  poor  sort. 
The  disappearance  of  the  old,  worthy,  classical 
music  is  ascribed,  singularly  enough,  to  the  Chinese 
scholastics.  The  work  of  Confucius,  "The  Book 
of  Music,"  was  wholly  lost  during  the  Han  dynasty 
together  with  the  old  operas,  choruses,  songs, 
and  instrumental  pieces.  Later,  the  antiquarian 
scholars  found  it  impossible  to  discover  and  restore 
these;  and,  influenced  by  the  word  but  not  by  the 
spirit  of  Confucius,  they  ignored  the  music  of  the 
common  people  which,  accordingly,  became  and 
continues  degraded.  This  is  the  tradition  offered 
to  explain  the  absence  of  noble  melodies  and  har- 
monies in  a  country  where,  by  the  testimony  of 
one  of  the  world's  greatest,  it  was  in  full  develop- 
ment more  than  two  thousand  years  ago. 

In  the  "Analects,"  also,  Confucius  has  said: 
"  If  a  man  be  without  the  virtues  proper  to  human- 
ity, what  has  he  to  do  with  music?"  (Analects, 
bk.  iii.,  c.  iii.) 

Its  development  was  already  ancient  in  his 
day;  and,  according  to  the  "Li  Ki,"  the  tradition 
ran:  "It  was  by  music  that  the  ancient  kings  gave 
appropriate  expression  to  their  joy."  (Bk.  xvii., 
sect,  iii.,  30.)  It  was  also  said  in  this  book  of  the 
olden  days:  "He  [the  emperor]  had  music  at  his 
meals."  But  the  most  significant  of  the  tradi- 
tions there  found  was  this:  "In  music  the  sages 
found  pleasure  and  that  it  could  be  used  to  make 
the  hearts  of  the  people  good.     Because  of  the 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      257 

deep  influence  which  it  exerts  on  a  man  and  the 
change  which  it  produces  in  manners  and  customs, 
the  ancient  kings  appointed  it  as  one  of  the  sub- 
jects of  instruction."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  7.) 

Of  singing  it  was  there  said:  "All  the  modula- 
tions of  the  voice  arise  from  the  mind,  and  the 
various  affections  of  the  mind  are  produced  by 
things,  external  to  it.  .  .  .  Music  is  the  production 
of  the  modulations  of  the  voice  and  its  source  is 
in  the  affections  of  the  mind  as  it  is  influenced  by 
external  things."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  1,  2.) 

That  music  is  not  merely  an  expression  of  what 
may  be  in  the  mind,  be  it  good  or  bad,  but  also  a 
powerful  influence  upon  it,  for  weal  or  ill,  is  affirmed 
by  Tsze-hsia  in  the  "Li  Ki"  in  these  words:  "The 
airs  of  Kang  go  to  wild  excess  and  debauch  the 
mind;  those  of  Sung  speak  of  slothful  indulgence 
and  of  women,  and  submerge  the  mind;  those  of 
Wei  are  strenuous  and  fast  and  perplex  the  mind; 
and  those  of  Khi  are  violent  and  depraved  and 
make  the  mind  arrogant.  The  airs  of  these  four 
states  all  stimulate  libidinous  desire  and  are  in- 
jurious to  virtue."  (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  11.)  That 
such  may  be  is  accounted  for  by  ascribing  to 
music  the  property  of  universal  speech  open  to 
all  the  intelligences  of  the  universe,  as  follows: 
"Whenever  notes  that  are  evil  and  depraved 
affect  men,  a  corresponding  evil  spirit  responds  to 
them;  and  when  this  evil  spirit  accomplishes  its 
manifestations,  licentious  music  is  the  result. 
Whenever  notes  that  are  correct  affect  men,  a 

IV 


258  The  Superior  Man 

corresponding  good  spirit  responds  to  them;  and 
when  this  good  spirit  accomplishes  its  manifesta- 
tions, sublime  music  is  the  result."  (Li  Ki,  bk. 
xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  14.) 

The  labours  of  Confucius  in  editing,  pruning, 
and  perfecting  the  poetry  and  music  extant  in  his 
day  were  among  his  most  celebrated  feats.  Of  it 
he  himself  says:  "I  returned  from  Wei  to  Loo,  and 
then  the  music  was  reformed  and  the  pieces  in 
the  Imperial  Songs  and  Songs  of  Praise  all  found 
their  proper  places."     (Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  xiv.) 

In  the  " Li  Ki"  it  is  also  said:  " In  an  age  of  dis- 
order, ceremonies  and  music  are  forgotten  and 
neglected,  and  music  becomes  licentious."  (Bk. 
xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  12.) 

But  this  need  for  reform  did  not  apply  to  all 
music.  "The  Shaou"  was  famous  in  his  day  as  a 
noble  piece  of  music,  and  "The  Woo"  scarcely 
second  to  it.  Between  these  he  is  said  to  have 
distinguished,  discriminatingly,  thus:  "The  Master 
said  of  '  The  Shaou '  that  it  was  perfectly  beautiful 
and  also  perfectly  good.  He  said  of  'The  Woo' 
that  it  was  perfectly  beautiful  but  not  perfectly 
good."     (Analects,  bk.  iii.,  c.  xxv.) 

Of  his  appreciation  of  "The  Shaou"  this  is 
related:  "When  the  Master  was  in  Ts'e,  he  heard 
'The  Shaou';  and  for  three  months  he  did  not 
know  the  taste  of  flesh.  '  I  did  not  think, '  he  said, 
1  that  music  could  have  been  made  so  excellent  as 
this!'"     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xiii.) 

Of   the   performance   of   another   piece,    "The 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      259 

Kwan  Ts'cu,"  he  said:  "When  the  music-master, 
Che,  first  entered  upon  his  office,  the  finish  of 
'The  Kwan  Ts'eu'  was  magnificent.  How  it  filled 
the  ears!"     (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  xv.) 

Of  this  piece  he  elsewhere  said:  "The  Kwan 
Ts'eu  is  expressive  of  enjoyment  without  being 
licentious  and  of  grief  without  being  hurtfully 
excessive."     (Analects,  bk.  hi.,  c.  xx.) 

Obviously  there  were  already  performances  of 
the  oratorio  or  even  the  opera  type,  for  in  the 
"Li  Ki"  this  is  found:  "Poetry  gives  the  thought 
expression ;  singing  prolongs  the  notes  of  the  voice ; 
pantomime  puts  the  body  into  action.  These 
three  spring  from  the  mind  and  musical  instru- 
ments accompany  them."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  21.) 

"The  Shaou"  was  evidently  something  akin 
to  opera.  Confucius  indicates  as  much  when  he 
speaks  its  praise  in  the  following,  commingled 
with  dispraise  of  certain  other  songs:  "Let  the 
music  be  Shaou  with  its  pantomimes!  Banish 
the  songs  of  Ch'ing  and  keep  aloof  from  specious 
orators!  The  songs  of  Ch'ing  are  licentious; 
specious  orators  are  dangerous."  (Analects,  bk. 
xv.,  c.  x.,  v.  5,  6.) 

That  "The  Woo"  was  operatic  is  plainly  shown 
by  this  description  of  it,  given  in  the  "Li  Ki": 
"Regarding  the  music  of  Woo,  in  the  first  scene, 
the  pantomimes  proceed  towards  the  north  to 
imitate  the  marching  of  Wu  Wang  against  Shang 
(or  the  Yin  dynasty).  In  the  second  scene,  they 
show  the  extinction  of  Shang.     In  the  third  scene, 


260  The  Superior  Man 

they  exhibit  the  victorious  return  to  the  south. 
In  the  fourth  scene,  they  play  the  annexation  of 
the  southern  states.  In  the  fifth  scene,  they  mani- 
fest the  division  of  labour  of  the  dukes  of  Chou  and 
Shao,  one  on  the  left  and  the  other  on  the  right, 
in  charge  of  the  empire.  In  the  sixth  scene,  they 
return  to  the  point  of  starting  to  show  that  the 
work  of  the  emperor  is  complete  and  that  the 
whole  empire  recognizes  him  as  the  supreme  ruler." 
(Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  18.) 

The  condemnation  of  the  sage  was  visited  in 
action  as  well  as  in  words  upon  the  following 
occasion:  "The  people  of  Ts'e  sent  to  Loo  a  pre- 
sent of  female  musicians,  which  Ke  Hwan  Tze 
accepted;  and  for  three  days  no  court  was  held. 
Confucius  took  his  departure."  (Analects,  bk. 
xviii.,  c.  iv.) 

Loo,  it  is  to  be  recalled,  was  the  very  state  where 
Confucius  afterwards  revised  and  harmonized 
the  music  of  the  realm.  Of  mere  jingle,  he  spoke 
disparagingly,  thus :  "  '  It  is  music ! '  they  say,  '  It  is 
music!'  Are  bells  and  drums  all  that  is  meant 
by  music?"     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xi.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  it  is  said,  likewise:  "What  you 
ask  about  is  music,  what  you  like  is  sound.  Now 
music  and  sound  are  akin  but  they  are  not  the 
same."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  hi.,  9.) 

And  yet  greater  purity  of  taste  is  indicated  by 
this  saying  from  the  same  book:  "In  music,  more 
than  aught  else,  there  should  be  nothing  showy 
or  false."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  22.) 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      261 

To  his  eldest  son,  Pih-yu,  he  said:  "Give  your- 
self to  the  Chow-nan  and  the  Chaou-nan.  The 
man  who  has  not  studied  the  Chow-nan  and  the 
Chaou-nan  is  like  one  who  stands  with  his  face 
against  a  wall."     (Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  x.) 

Confucius  was  himself  a  musical  performer  upon 
many  instruments,  according  to  tradition.  In 
the  "Analects"  is  found  this  account  of  his  skill 
upon  "the  musical  stone":  "The  Master  was 
playing  one  day  on  a  musical  stone  in  Wei,  when 
a  man  carrying  a  straw  basket  passed  the  door 
of  the  house  where  Confucius  was  and  said,  'His 
heart  is  full  who  beats  the  musical  stone ! ' ' 
(Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xlii.,  v.  1.) 

That  he  had  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the 
art  is  obvious,  not  merely  from  what  he  did  for 
the  music  of  Loo  but  also  from  the  fact  that  this 
saying  of  his  was  deemed  worthy  to  be  handed 
down:  "How  to  play  music  may  be  known.  At 
the  commencement  of  the  piece,  all  the  parts 
should  sound  together.  As  it  proceeds,  they 
should  be  in  harmony,  severally  distinct  and 
flowing,  without  break,  and  thus  on  to  the  conclu- 
sion."    (Analects,  bk.  hi.,  c.  xxiii.) 

That  Chinese  music  had  already  progressed 
far  beyond  mere  melodies  is  sufficiently  plain,  no 
doubt,  from  what  has  already  been  said.  Yet  it 
is  germane  to  quote  this  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "Har- 
mony is  the  thing  piincipally  sought  in  music." 
(Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  29.) 

The  following  also  indicates  the  reverence  and 


262  The  Superior  Man 

respect  in  which  Confucius  was  held  even  by  the 
most  accomplished  singers  of  his  time,  both  as  a 
man  and  an  expert  on  matters  of  taste,  and  per- 
haps as  a  musician  also:  "When  the  Master  was 
in  company  with  a  person  who  was  singing,  if  he 
sang  well,  he  would  make  him  repeat  the  song 
while  he  accompanied  it  with  his  own  voice." 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxxi.) 

His  preference  for  classical  music  is  voiced  in 
this  saying:  "The  men  of  former  times,  in  the 
matters  of  ceremonies  and  music,  were  rustics,  it 
is  said,  while  the  men  of  these  later  times,  in  cere- 
monies and  music,  are  accomplished  artists.  If 
I  have  occasion  to  use  those  things,  I  follow  the 
men  of  former  times!"     (Analects,  bk.  xi.,  c.  i.) 

He  included  among  the  "three  things  men  find 
enjoyment  in,  which  are  advantageous,"  this: 
"The  discriminating  study  of  ceremonies  and 
music."     (Analects,  bk.  xvi.,  c.  v.) 

The  method  by  which  music  is  conceived  of, 
as  profoundly  affecting  the  moral  nature  of  man, 
is  thus  circumstantially  and  persuasively  de- 
lineated in  the  "Li  Ki " :  "Hence  the  superior  man 
returns  to  the  good  affections  proper  to  his  nature, 
in  order  to  bring  his  will  into  harmony  with  them, 
and  compares  the  different  qualities  of  actions  in 
order  to  perfect  his  conduct.  Notes  that  are 
evil  and  depraved  and  sights  leading  to  disorder 
and  licentiousness  are  not  allowed  to  affect  his 
ears  and  eyes.  Licentious  music  and  corrupted 
ceremonies  are  not  admitted  into   the  mind  to 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      263 

affect  its  powers.  The  spirit  of  idleness,  indiffer- 
ence, depravity,  and  perversity  finds  no  exhibition 
in  his  person."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  ii.,  15.) 

These  most  desirable  results,  however,  by  no 
means  exhaust  the  conception  of  Confucius,  of  the 
benefits  to  the  heart  and  mind  which  a  full  know- 
ledge and  appreciation  of  music  can  impart.  The 
highest  possibilities  are  set  forth  in  these  words  of 
most  enthusiastic  eloquence,  also  in  the  pages  of 
the  "Li  Ki":  "When  one  has  mastered  music 
completely  and  regulates  his  heart  and  mind  ac- 
cordingly, the  natural,  correct,  gentle,  and  sincere 
heart  is  easily  developed  and  joy  attends  its  de- 
velopment. This  joy  proceeds  into  a  feeling  of 
calm.  This  calm  continues  long.  In  this  un- 
broken calm  the  man  is  Heaven  within  himself. 
Like  unto  Heaven,  he  is  spiritual.  Like  unto 
Heaven,  though  he  speak  not,  he  is  accepted. 
Spiritual,  he  commands  awe,  without  displaying 
anger."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  23.) 

Ceremonies.  "Ceremonies  and  music  should 
not  for  a  moment  be  neglected  by  any  one." 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  v.  23.) 

In  this  passage  from  the  "Li  Ki"  and  in  many 
other  sayings  of  Confucius  and  his  followers,  music 
and  ceremonies  are  mentioned  together.  This  is 
particularly  true  in  the  "Li  Ki"  in  which  both 
subjects  are  most  discussed  and  from  which  all  the 
quotations  under  this  head  have  been  taken. 

It  is  partly  explained,  as  follows:  "The  sphere 
in  which  music  manifests,  is  within;  the  sphere  of 


264  The  Superior  Man 

ceremonies  is  without."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii., 
v.  25.) 

This  is  repeated  in  another  place  with  emphasis 
and  with  apposite  deductions  therefrom,  thus: 
"Music  springs  from  the  inner  motions  of  the 
soul ;  ceremonies  are  the  outward  motions  of  the 
body.  Therefore  do  men  make  ceremonies  as  few 
and  short  as  possible  but  give  free  range  to  music. " 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  v.  26.) 

That  Chinese  ceremonies  are,  or  were,  few  and 
short,  none  will  perhaps  credit,  especially  after 
looking  through  the  portions  relating  to  them  in 
the  works  of  Confucius.  But  it  must  be  recalled 
— and  it  requires  a  distinct  effort  for  the  Occiden- 
tal mind  to  conceive  and  to  realize  the  thought — 
that  ceremonies  constitute  a  language, — a  lan- 
guage, also,  very  erudite,  richly  expressive,  ornate 
and  comprehensive  when  developed  as  in  China. 
This  language,  indeed,  in  its  difficulties,  as  in 
many  other  respects,  no  doubt,  is  comparable  only 
with  a  written  language  such  as  the  ideographs 
of  China  constitute;  and  perhaps,  like  them,  has 
within  it  the  possibilities  of  a  universal  means  of 
symbolical  communication  as  by  a  printed  text, 
entirely  independent  of  the  speech  of  men. 

It  must  have  been  with  somewhat  of  this  senti- 
ment that  the  ancient  sage  viewed  ceremonies, 
else  his  praise  would  be  extravagant,  indeed.  It 
is  said  of  those  whose  work  was  even  then  tradi- 
tional: "The'  sages  made  music  in  response  to 
Heaven   and   framed  ceremonies   in   correspond- 


Cultivation  of  the  Fine  Arts      265 

ence  with  Earth."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect.  i.,  v. 
29.) 

Of  good  taste  in  manners  as  in  music,  the  "Li 
Ki"  well  says:  "The  highest  style  of  music  is  sure 
to  be  distinguished  by  its  ease;  the  highest  style 
of  elegance,  by  its  undemonstrativeness."  (Bk. 
xvii.,  sect,  i.,  v.  17.) 

And  it  unites  them  with  the  real  things  of 
character  and  of  life  in  these  words:  "Benevolence 
is  akin  to  music  and  righteousness  to  ceremonies." 
(Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  v.  28.) 

This  also,  is  not  a  mere  commonplace  or  abstrac- 
tion in  the  mind  of  this  wisest  of  the  Orientals; 
for  the  book  returns  to  it  as  follows:  "He  who 
has  understood  both  ceremonies  and  music  may 
be  pronounced  to  be  a  possessor  of  virtue;  virtue 
means  self-realization."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i., 
v.  8.) 

This  work  even  indicates  the  method  by  which 
these  practical  results  may  flow  from  an  art  so 
simple  and  apparently  so  void  of  deep  significance : 
"Perform  ceremonies  and  music  perfectly  in  all 
their  outward  manifestation  and  application,  and 
all  else  under  heaven  will  be  easy."  (Li  Ki,  bk. 
xvii.,  sect,  hi.,  v.  25.) 

This  is  more  definitely  and  clearly  said  in  the 
following:  "The  instructive  and  transforming 
power  of  ceremonies  is  subtle.  They  check  de- 
pravity before  it  has  taken  form,  causing  men  daily 
to  move  toward  what  is  good  and  to  keep  them- 
selves far  from  wrong-doing,  without  being  con- 


266  The  Superior  Man 

scious  of  it.  It  was  on  this  account  that  the 
ancient  kings  set  so  high  a  value  on  them." 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xxiii.,  9.) 

Confucius,  however,  does  not  think  of  music 
as  merely  a  human  art,  but  also  as  the  common 
speech  of  all  intelligences  of  the  universe;  and  he 
desires  that  ceremonies  become  and  be  to  the  eyes 
of  men  just  such  a  delicate,  graceful,  and  expressive 
mode  of  communication.  Therefore  their  inter- 
relationship with  the  seen  and  the  unseen  is  as- 
serted in  the  "Li  Ki"  in  these  terms,  in  no  respect 
uncertain:  "In  music  of  the  grandest  style  there 
is  the  same  harmony  that  prevails  between  Heaven 
and  Earth ;  in  ceremonies  of  the  grandest  form  there 
is  the  same  graduation  that  exists  between  Heaven 
and  Earth."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  v.  19.) 

Yet  more  explicit  is  this  language,  all  the  more 
significant  in  that  Confucius  did  not  often  discuss, 
or  even  refer  to,  spiritual  beings:  "In  the  visible 
there  are  ceremonies  and  music ;  in  the  invisible,  the 
spiritual  agencies."   (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  v.  19.) 

And  in  the  same  book  he  even  asserted  the 
psychical  power  of  ceremonies,  as  of  music, — of 
both  of  these,  united — to  summon  the  intelligences 
of  the  universe  for  communion  with  minds  im- 
prisoned in  human  bodies, in  these  burning  phrases: 
"Ceremonies  and  music  in  their  nature  resemble 
Heaven  and  Earth,  penetrate  the  virtues  of  the 
spiritual  intelligences,  bring  down  spirits  from 
above  and  lift  the  souls  that  are  abased."  (Bk. 
xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  v.  2.) 


CHAPTER  VII 

UNIVERSAL   RELATIONS 

The  views  of  Confucius  on  man's  relations  to 
the  universe  are  singularly  in  line  with  the  cosmic 
philosophy  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Death  and  Immortality.  "The  body  and  the 
animal  soul  go  downwards;  and  the  intelligent 
spirit  is  on  high."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  vii.,  sect,  i.,  7.) 

Thus  in  the  "Li  Ki"  is  voiced  the  belief  of  the 
ancient  Chinese,  which  was  accepted  by  Confu- 
cius and  his  disciples,  not  as  a  saving  article  of 
creed,  but  merely  as  a  fact.  It  is  again  stated 
in  the  "Li  Ki"  in  this  manner:  "That  the  bones 
and  flesh  should  return  to  earth  is  what  is  ap- 
pointed. But  the  soul  in  its  energy  can  go  every- 
where; it  can  go  everywhere."  (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii., 
pt.  iii.,  13.) 

How  fully  this  was  accepted  by  Confucius, 
may  be  seen,  not  merely  from  the  fact  that  by 
editing  the  "Li  Ki"  and  permitting  these  apo- 
thegms to  stand,  he  gave  them  his  approval,  but 
by  this  saying,  much  more  explicit  on  this  point, 
attributed  to  him  by  the  same  book:  "The  Master 
said:  'The  intelligent  spirit  is  of  the  Shan  nature 

267 


268  The  Superior  Man 

and  shows  that  in  fullest  measure;  the  animal  soul 
is  of  the  Kwei  nature  and  shows  that  in  fullest 
measure.  .  .  .  All  who  live,  must  die  and,  dying, 
return  to  the  earth;  this  is  what  is  called  Kwei. 
The  bones  and  flesh  moulder  below  and,  hidden 
away,  become  the  earth  of  the  fields.  But  the 
spirit  issues  forth  and  is  displayed  on  high  in  a 
condition  of  glorious  brightness."  (Bk.  xxi., 
sect,  ii.,  I.) 

That  scientific  investigation  would  show  this  to 
be  true,  is  indicated  by  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix 
iii.,  sect,  i.,  c.  iv.,  v.  2)  thus:  "He  traces  things  to 
their  beginning  and  follows  them  to  their  end ; 
thus  he  knows  what  can  be  said  about  death  and 
life." 

His  disciple,  Tsang,  in  speaking  thus  of  a  man 
about  to  die,  signified  his  view  that  death  is  but 
an  awakening:  "When  a  bird  is  about  to  die,  its 
notes  are  mournful;  when  a  man  is  about  to  die, 
his  words  are  good."  (Analects,  bk.  viii.,  c.  iv., 
v.  2.) 

The  following  account  of  the  sanitary  precau- 
tions to  be  taken  when  one  is  about  to  die,  is  given 
in  the  "Li  Ki":  "When  the  illness  was  extreme, 
all  about  the  establishment  was  swept  clean,  inside 
and  out."     (Bk.  xix.,  sect,  i.,  1.) 

And  this  of  the  precaution  to  assure  that  death 
has  really  taken  place:  "Fine  floss  was  laid  over  to 
make  sure  that  breathing  had  stopped."  (Bk. 
xix.,  sect,  i.,  1.), 

And  yet  another  passage  exhibits  the  same  care 


Universal  Relations  269 

which  has  long  been  taken  in  Occidental  countries 
to  avoid  the  possibility  of  burial  alive:  "Therefore 
when  it  is  said  that  the  body  is  not  clothed  in  its 
last  raiment  until  after  three  days,  it  signifies 
that  it  is  so  delayed  to  see  if  the  father  may  not 
come  to  life."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxxii.,  4.) 

The  following  from  the  same  book  which  devotes 
more  attention  to  the  subject  than  any  other  of 
the  books  upon  which  Confucius  wrought  or  in 
which  his  sayings  are  recorded,  is  an  apt  and  even 
illuminating  statement  of  the  peculiar  horror  with 
which  the  dead  body  has  ever  been  regarded: 
"When  a  man  dies,  there  arises  a  feeling  of  re- 
pugnance; the  impotence  of  his  body  causes  one 
to  revolt  from  it."     (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  ii.,  8.) 

Khang-Tsze  Kao,  in  the  "Li  Ki,"  is  reported 
as  saying  the  following  upon  the  ethics  of  burial, 
urging  that  the  disposition  of  the  bodies  of  the 
dead  should  not  interfere  with  the  welfare  of  the 
living:  "I  have  heard  that  in  life  we  should  be 
useful  to  others  and  in  death  do  them  no  harm. 
Though  I  may  not  have  been  useful  to  others  in 
life,  shall  I  in  death  do  them  harm?  When  I  am 
dead,  choose  a  piece  of  barren  ground  and  bury  me 
there."     (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  iii.) 

In  the  same  book  Confucius  is  credited  with 
having  inaugurated,  or,  if  not,  with  having  con- 
firmed, a  departure  from  the  ancient  custom  of 
levelling  the  earth  over  the  grave,  so  that  it  would 
become  indistinguishable:  "When  Confucius  had 
buried  his  mother  in  the  same  grave  [*.  e.,  in  which 


270  The  Superior  Man 

his  father  was  interred],  he  said:  'I  have  heard 
that  the  ancients,  in  making  graves,  raised  no 
mound  over  them.  But  I  am  a  man  who  will  be 
east,  west,  south,  and  north.'  On  this  he  raised 
a  mound,  four  feet  high."    (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  i.,  pt.  i.,  6.) 

After  the  fact  of  death  is  assured,  however,  and 
before  any  other  ceremony  or  duty  relative  to  the 
departed  is  performed,  there  is  the  "calling  back" 
of  the  soul  to  reoccupy  the  garments  he  has  quitted. 
The  "Li  Ki"  describes  it  thus:  "At  calling  back 
the  soul  ...  an  officer  of  low  rank  performed  the 
ceremony.  All  who  co-operated,  used  court  robes 
of  the  deceased.  ...  In  all  cases  they  ascended 
the  east  wing  to  the  middle  of  the  roof,  where 
the  footing  was  perilous.  Facing  the  north,  they 
gave  three  loud  calls  for  the  deceased ;  after  which 
they  rolled  up  the  garment  they  had  used  and 
cast  it  down  in  front  where  the  wardrobe-keeper 
received  it."     (Bk.  xix.,  sect,  i.,  3.) 

The  garments  used  in  calling  back  the  soul  were 
not  available  to  array  the  corpse;  upon  this  the 
same  book  says:  "The  robe  which  was  used  in 
calling  the  soul  back  was  not  used  to  cover  or  to 
clothe  the  corpse."     (Bk.  xix.,  sect,  i.,  4.) 

The  appellation  used  in  summoning  the  soul 
to  return  appears  from  this  passage:  "In  all  cases 
of  calling  back  the  soul,  a  man  was  called  by  his 
name  and  a  woman  by  her  designation."  (Li  Ki, 
bk.  xix.,  sect,  i.,  4.) 

The  levelling  of  rank  by  the  unrelenting  hand  of 
death  is  typified  by  this  feature  of  this  ancient 


Universal  Relations  271 

ceremony:  "In  summoning  the  dead  to  return 
and  in  writing  the  inscription,  the  language  was  the 
same  for  all,  from  the  son  of  Heaven  to  the  ordi- 
nary officer."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xiii.,  sect,  ii.,  7.) 

The  purpose  and  significance  of  the  ceremony, 
which,  when  the  dead  is  a  parent,  is  but  the  com- 
mencement of  lifelong  veneration  for  his  spirit 
and  attempted  communion  with  it,  are  revealed 
in  this  passage  from  the  same  book:  "Calling  the 
soul  back  is  the  way  love  receives  its  consumma- 
tion, and  contains  the  expression  of  the  mind  in 
prayer."     (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  ii.,  pt.  i.,  22.) 

Communion  with  Departed  Ancestors.  "They 
served  the  dead  as  they  would  have  served  them 
when  living;  they  served  the  departed  as  they 
would  have  served  them,  had  they  continued  with 
them."     (Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xix.,  v.  5.) 

In  these  words  from  the  "  Doctrine  of  the  Mean  " 
Confucius  set  forth  the  conception  of  the  observ- 
ances of  filial  piety  toward  parents  and  other 
nearly  related  ancestors  which  should  be  continued 
unbroken  throughout  life,  even  after  they  depart 
this  life — a  conception  which  pervaded  his  own 
conduct,  as  is  thus  described  in  the  "Analects": 
"He  sacrificed  to  the  dead  as  if  they  were  present. 
He  sacrificed  to  the  spirits,  as  if  the  spirits  were 
present."     (Bk.  iii.,  c.  xii.) 

The  central  idea  is  that  the  disembodied  soul 
of  this  ancestor  is  yet  interested  in  the  conduct  of 
his  family  in  the  world  of  flesh  and,  if  given  an 
opportunity  to  do  so  by  the  due  observance  of 


272  The  Superior  Man 

sacrificial  rites,  watches  over  and  communes  with 
his  descendants,  in  order  to  warn,  counsel,  rebuke, 
and  even  to  correct  them.  This  he  does,  not 
merely  for  their  sake  but  also  for  his  own,  to  the 
end  that  the  good  name  of  the  family  may  become 
more  illustrious,  thus  redounding  to  his  own  credit, 
as  well  as  to  the  credit  of  the  living. 

This  idea  of  "accumulating  goodness"  by  means 
of  serried  generations  of  men  who  acquit  them- 
selves well  in  all  the  offices  of  life,  is  an  important 
feature  of  the  sanction  which  the  pious  reverence 
for  ancestors,  both  when  living  and  after  death, 
gives  for  correct  moral  conduct  throughout  life. 

Upon  this,  the  "  Yi  King"  (appendix  iv.,  sect,  ii., 
c.  iii.,  5)  says:  "The  family  that  accumulates 
goodness  is  sure  to  have  superabundant  happiness, 
and  the  family  that  accumulates  evil,  to  have 
superabundant  misery.  The  murder  of  a  ruler  by 
his  minister  or  of  a  father  by  his  son,  is  not  the 
result  of  the  events  of  one  morning  or  one  evening. 
The  causes  of  it  have  gradually  accumulated, 
through  the  absence  of  early  discrimination." 

And  it  thus  presents  yet  another  view  of  the 
lamentable  consequences  of  neglect  of  this  law  of 
what  we  moderns  term  "heredity":  "If  acts  of 
goodness  be  not  accumulated,  they  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  give  its  finish  to  one's  name;  if  acts  of 
evil  be  not  accumulated,  they  are  not  sufficient 
to  destroy  one's  life.  The  inferior  man  thinks 
that  small  acts  of  goodness  are  of  no  benefit  and 
does  not  do  them,  and  that  small  deeds  of  evil 


Universal  Relations  273 

do  no  harm  and  does  not  abstain  from  them. 
Hence  his  wickedness  becomes  great  till  it  cannot 
be  covered  and  his  guilt  becomes  great  till  it  can- 
not be  pardoned."  (Yi  King,  appendix  iii.,  sect. 
ii.,  c.  v.,  38.) 

The  general  view  of  the  filial  duty  of  the  pro- 
geny both  toward  living  ancestors  and  toward  the 
dead,  so  far  as  concerns  avoiding  acts  which  will 
disgrace  them  and  cultivating  conduct  which  will 
do  them  credit,  has,  however,  been  fully  set  forth 
in  the  chapters  upon  the  subject  of  filial  piety. 
Here  we  have  to  do  only  with  the  reverent  cere- 
monies in  the  ancestral  temples,  by  means  of  which 
veneration  for  the  souls  of  the  departed  was 
exhibited  and  communion  with  them  was  sought. 
To  these  ceremonies  the  "Hsiao  King"  (c.  viii.) 
thus  refers:  "In  such  a  state  of  things,  parents 
while  living  reposed  in  their  sons;  and  when  dead 
and  offered  sacrifices,  their  disembodied  spirits 
enjoyed  the  offerings." 

The  mode  of  effecting  this  was  by  offering  sacri- 
fices of  food  and  drink,  accompanied  with  cere- 
monies, more  or  less  elaborate  according  to  the 
rank  and  estate  of  the  son.  The  eldest  living  son 
in  these  august  ceremonies  impersonated  the  de- 
ceased father  and  presided  at  the  sacrifice. 

Only  the  emperor  sacrifices  to  his  ancestors 
generally ;  the  king,  only  to  ancestors  to  the  fourth 
removal ;  feudal  princes  and  great  officers  to  those 
of  the  third  degree;  high  officers  to  parents  and 
grandparents;  subordinate  administrative  officers 
18 


274  The  Superior  Man 

and  the  common  people  to  the  immediate  parent 
only.  All  ancestors  further  removed  were  said 
to  "remain  in  the  ghostly  state,"  i.e.,  presumably, 
to  interest  themselves  not  at  all  in  matters  of  this 
earth.  In  the  "Li  Ki,"  this  is  described  thus: 
"The  death  of  all  creatures  is  spoken  of,  as  their 
dissolution;  but  man,  when  dead,  is  said  to  be  in 
the  ghostly  state."     (Bk.  xx.,  4.) 

Recurring  to  the  statement  that  sacrifices  should 
be  offered  to  the  dead  as  if  they  were  living,  we 
find  that  the  "Li  Ki"  offers  a  necessary  qualifica- 
tion of  this  in  the  following  caution:  "In  dealing 
with  the  dead,  if  we  treat  them  as  if  they  were 
entirely  dead,  that  would  show  want  of  affection 
and  should  not  be  done ;  if  we  treat  them  as  if  they 
were  entirely  living,  that  would  show  want  of 
wisdom  and  should  not  be  done."  (Bk.  ii.,  sect,  i., 
pt.  iii.,  3.) 

Something  of  the  manner  of  offering  these  sacri- 
fices and  also  of  the  purpose  of  it  is  set  forth  in  this 
passage  from  the  same  book:  "The  ruler  and  his 
wife  take  alternate  parts  in  presenting  these  offer- 
ings, all  being  done  to  please  the  souls  of  the 
departed  and  constituting  a  union  with  the  dis- 
embodied and  unseen."     (Bk.  vii.,  sect,  i.,  II.) 

And  the  purpose,  spiritual  communion,  in  this: 
"It  was  thus  that  they  maintained  their  inter- 
course with  spiritual  intelligences."  (Bk.  ix., 
sect,  i.,  5.) 

Confucius  thus  rebukes  attempts  to  secure  free 
communion  with  spirits  of  men  with  whom  one  is 


Universal  Relations  275 

not  connected  by  ancestral  ties:  "For  a  man  to 
sacrifice  to  a  spirit  which  does  not  belong  to  him, 
is  flattery."     (Analects,  bk.  ii.,  c.  xxiv.,  v.  I.) 

The  mischief  of  such  miscellaneous  seeking 
after  communications  from  departed  spirits  is  so 
familiar  a  thing  in  all  ages  that  it  is  both  a  relief 
and  also  reassuring  to  find  it  thus  set  forth  by  the 
sage  who  apparently  fully  recognized  both  the 
continuance  of  conscious  life  after  the  change, 
called  death,  and  the  possibility  of  intercommuni- 
cation between  intelligences  yet  in  this  world  and 
intelligences  that  have  departed  from  it. 

In  view  of  his  primary  injunction  to  investigate 
all  phenomena,  it  seems  improbable  that  he  would 
have  condemned  scientific  research  in  such  matters; 
but  mere  idle  promiscuity  of  such  communion 
was  to  his  mind  an  impertinence,  a  peril,  and  even 
an  act  of  impiety;  yet  in  "Shuo  Yuan,"  he  is  re- 
ported as  saying:  "If  I  were  to  say  that  the  dead 
have  consciousness,  I  am  afraid  that  filial  sons 
and  dutiful  grandsons  would  impair  their  sub- 
stance in  paying  their  last  offices  to  the  departed ; 
and  if  I  were  to  say  that  the  dead  have  not  con- 
sciousness, I  am  afraid  that  unfilial  sons  and 
undutiful  grandsons  would  leave  their  parents  un- 
buried.  If  you  wish  to  know  whether  the  dead 
have  consciousness  or  not,  you  will  know  it  when 
you  die.  There  is  no  need  to  speculate  upon  it 
now."     (Bk.  xviii.) 

This,  however,  appears  to  be  of  dubious  authen- 
ticity as  a  statement  by  Confucius,  and  certainly 


276  '  The  Superior  Man 

is  not  in  harmony  with  his  general  teaching  upon 
this  subject. 

General  sacrifices,  also  inviting  such  communion, 
might  however  be  offered,  according  to  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  "Li  Ki,"  to  a  few  who  had  served 
their  fellow-men  with  thoroughness  and  distinc- 
tion. The  following  passage  illustrates  the  nature 
of  these  exceptions:  "According  to  the  institutes 
of  the  sage  kings  about  sacrifices,  they  should  be 
offered  to  him  who  gave  just  laws  to  the  people; 
to  him  who  laboured  unto  death  in  the  discharge 
of  his  duties ;  to  him  who  by  indefatigable  industry 
strengthened  the  state;  to  him  who  with  courage 
and  success  faced  great  calamities;  and  to  him 
who  warded  off  great  evils."     (Bk.  xx.,  9.) 

It  was  not  in  the  least  the  ancient  conception  of 
sacrifice  to  ancestors  that  it  should  be  a  season  of 
recreation  or  often  be  repeated.  It  should  take 
place  at  least  once  each  year,  upon  the  anniver- 
sary of  the  departure  of  the  ancestor,  and  sacrifices 
might  also  be  held  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  in 
accordance  with  these  instructions  in  the  "  Li  Ki" : 
"Sacrifices  should  not  be  frequently  repeated. 
Such  frequency  is  indicative  of  importunateness, 
and  importunateness  is  inconsistent  with  rever- 
ence. Nor  should  they  be  at  distant  intervals. 
Such  infrequency  is  indicative  of  indifference; 
and  indifference  leads  to  forgetting  them  alto- 
gether. Therefore,  the  superior  man,  in  harmony 
with  the  course  of  Heaven,  offers  the  spring  and 
autumn  sacrifices.     When  he  treads  the  dew  which 


Universal  Relations  277 

has  descended  as  hoar-frost,  he  cannot  help  a 
feeling  of  sadness  which  arises  in  his  mind  and 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  the  cold.  In  spring,  when 
he  treads  upon  the  ground,  wet  with  the  rains  and 
dews  that  have  fallen  heavily,  he  cannot  avoid 
being  moved  by  a  feeling  as  if  he  were  seeing  his 
departed  friends.  We  greet  the  approach  of  our 
friends  with  music  and  escort  them  away  with 
sadness,  and  hence  at  the  spring  sacrifice  we  use 
music  but  not  at  the  autumn  sacrifice."  (Bk.  xxi., 
sect,  i.,  1.) 

This,  from  the  same  book,  cautions  against 
over-indulgence  in  this  regard:  "  Do  not  take  liber- 
ties with  or  weary  spiritual  beings!"  (Li  Ki, 
bk.  xv.,  22.) 

The  following  injunctions  against  attempting  to 
make  of  the  sacrifice  a  time  of  rest  or  recreation 
are  also  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "In  maintaining  inter- 
course with  spiritual,  intelligent  beings,  there 
should  be  nothing  like  an  extreme  desire  for  rest 
and  ease  for  our  personal  gratification."  (Bk.  ix., 
sect,  ii.,  16.) 

"The  idea  which  leads  to  intercourse  with 
spiritual  beings  is  not  interchangeable  with  that 
which  finds  its  realization  in  rest  and  pleasure." 
(Bk.  ix.,  sect,  ii.,  15.) 

And  earnest  efforts  to  attain  the  purposes  of  the 
sacrifice  are  pronounced  indispensable  in  the  fol- 
lowing passage :  ' '  When  they  had  reverently  done 
their  utmost,  they  could  serve  the  spiritual  intel- 
ligences."    (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxii.,  5.) 


278  The  Superior  Man 

The  following  more  particularly  describes  what 
is  necessary  in  this  regard:  "Therefore  there  was 
the  milder  discipline  of  the  mind  for  seven  days, 
to  bring  it  to  a  state  of  singleness  of  purpose ;  and 
the  fuller  discipline  of  it  for  three  days,  to  con- 
centrate all  the  thoughts.  That  concentration  is 
called  purification;  its  final  attainment  is  when 
the  highest  order  of  pure  intelligence  is  reached. 
Then  only  is  it  possible  to  enter  into  communion 
with  the  spiritual  intelligences."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxii., 
6.) 

The  nature  of  this  earnest  concentration  is 
sufficiently  indicated  in  the  following  account  of 
the  procedure  of  the  ancients:  "When  the  time 
came  for  offering  a  sacrifice,  the  man  wisely  gave 
himself  to  the  work  of  purification.  That  purifi- 
cation meant  concentration  and  singleness,  ren- 
dering all  uniform  until  the  thoughts  were  all 
focussed  upon  one  object."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxii.,  6.) 

Or  as  more  briefly  said  in  another  place,  thus: 
"Sacrificing  means  'directing  one's  self  to.'  The 
son  directs  his  thoughts  and  then  he  can  offer  up 
the  sacrifice."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi.,  6.) 

The  absolute  necessity  for  this  single-minded 
sincerity  is  asserted  in  these  words  ascribed  by  the 
"Shu  King"  to  I  Yin:  "The  spirits  do  not  always 
accept  the  sacrifices  that  are  offered  to  them; 
they  accept  only  the  sacrifices  of  the  sincere." 
(Pt.  iv.,  bk.  v.,  sect,  iii.,  I.) 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  subjective  character  of  true 
sacrifice  or  seeking  for  spiritual  communion  is  thus 


Universal  Relations  279 

set  forth :  "  Sacrifice  comes  not  to  a  man  from  with- 
out; it  issues  from  him  and  flows  from  his  heart." 
(Bk.  xxii.,  1.) 

Its  subjective  benefits  are  also  thus  portrayed: 
"Only  men  of  ability  and  character  can  give  com- 
plete expression  to  the  concept  of  sacrifice.  The 
sacrifices  of  such  men  have  their  reward,  not 
indeed  what  the  world  calls  reward.  Their  re- 
ward is  the  perfecting  of  self;  this  also  means  the 
full  and  normal  discharge  of  all  one's  duties." 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xxii.,  2.) 

It  must  not  for  a  moment  be  supposed,  however, 
that  such  was  the  only  or  indeed  the  chief  purpose 
in  performing  the  arduous  ceremonies  of  devotion 
for  departed  ancestors.  Instead,  actual,  percept- 
ible, realized  communion  and  communication, 
resulting  in  counsel,  warning,  commendation,  or 
reproof,  and,  in  general,  assistance  in  directing 
his  course  so  that  it  will  be  creditable  both  to  his 
ancestors  and  to  himself,  were  expected  and  in- 
tended. The  "Li  Ki"  does  not  leave  this  for  a 
moment  in  doubt;  for  it  says:  "The  object  of  all 
the  ceremonies  is  to  bring  down  the  spirits  from 
above,  even  their  ancestors."    (Bk.  vii.,  sect,  i.,  10.) 

It  will  be  recalled  that  in  the  following  passage 
regarding  the  influence  of  ceremonies  and  music, 
already  quoted  from  the  "Li  Ki,"  this  idea  of 
summoning  the  spirits  of  the  departed  is  involved : 
"Ceremonies  and  music  in  their  nature  resemble 
Heaven  and  Earth,  penetrate  the  virtues  of  spiri- 
tual intelligences,  bring  down  spirits  from  above, 


280  The  Superior  Man 

and  lift  the  souls  that  are  abased."  (Bk.  xvii., 
sect,  iii.,  2.) 

And  also  pertinent  to  the  subject,  is  this  pas- 
sage: "In  the  visible  sphere,  there  are  ceremonies 
and  music;  in  the  invisible,  the  spiritual  agencies." 
(Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i.,  19.) 

And  of  one  who  is  completely  under  the  spell 
of  music,  this,  also,  already  quoted:  "In  this 
unbroken  calm  the  man  is  Heaven  within  himself. 
Like  unto  Heaven,  he  is  spiritual.  Like  unto 
Heaven,  though  he  speaks  not,  he  is  accepted. 
Spiritual,  he  commands  awe,  without  displaying 
anger."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xvii.,  sect,  iii.,  23.) 

These  are  recognized  means  of  producing  psychi- 
cal phenomena  in  these  days  of  scientific  investi- 
gation, as  also  are  the  following,  likewise  from  the 
"Li  Ki,"  save  that  fixing  the  mind  upon  that 
which  it  desires  to  behold  would  be  shunned  as 
tending  to  self-delusion:  "The  severest  vigil  and 
purification  are  maintained  and  carried  on  in- 
wardly, while  a  scarcely  looser  vigil  is  maintained 
outwardly.  During  the  days  of  such  vigil,  the 
mourner  thinks  of  his  departed,  how  and  where 
they  sat,  how  they  smiled  and  spoke,  what  were 
their  aims  and  views,  what  they  delighted  in,  what 
they  desired  and  enjoyed.  On  the  third  day  of 
such  discipline,  he  will  see  those  for  whom  it  has 
been  exercised."     (Bk.  xxi.,  sect,  i.,  2.) 

Spiritual  Beings  and  Spiritual  Power.  "The 
rites  to  be  observed  by  all  under  heaven  were 
intended  to  promote  the  return  of  the  mind  to  the 


Universal  Relations  281 

source  of  all  things,  the  honouring  of  spiritual 
beings,  the  harmonious  utilization  of  government, 
righteousness,  and  humility."  (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi., 
sect,  i.,  20.) 

The  broader  purpose  of  sacrifices  to  ancestors, 
viz. :  to  make  men  conscious  and  aware  at  all  times 
of  the  existences  of  spiritual  beings  and  of  their 
powers,  is  well  set  forth  in  the  foregoing,  from  the 
"Li  Ki." 

The  following  passage  from  the  "Yi  King,"  al- 
ready quoted  in  another  connection,  refers  to  the 
same  process  of  scientific  inquiry:  "When  we 
minutely  investigate  the  nature  and  reasons  of 
things  till  we  have  entered  into  the  inscrutable 
and  spiritual  in  them,  we  attain  to  the  largest 
practical  application  of  them;  when  that  applica- 
tion becomes  quickest  and  readiest  and  personal 
poise  is  secured,  our  virtue  is  thereby  exalted. 
Proceeding  beyond  this,  wc  reach  a  point  which 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  comprehend;  we  have 
thoroughly  mastered  the  inscrutable  and  spiritual 
and  understand  the  processes  of  transformation. 
This  is  the  fulness  of  virtue."  (Appendix  iii., 
sect,  ii.,  c.  v.,  33,  34.) 

Yet,  in  order  to  enforce  the  very  necessary 
lesson  that  in  this  life  it  is  the  duties  here  and 
now  with  which  a  man  should  concern  himself, 
Confucius  often  rebuked  over-insistent  curiosity 
concerning  disembodied  spirits  and  the  future 
life.  Several  of  these  sayings  have  been  quoted 
elsewhere;  and  of  them  these  only  are  reproduced 


282  The  Superior  Man 

here:  "To  give  one's  self  earnestly  to  the  duties 
due  to  men,  and  while  respecting  spiritual  beings 
to  keep  aloof  from  them,  may  be  called  wisdom." 
(Analects,  bk.  vi.,  c.  xx.) 

"Ke  Loo  asked  about  serving  the  spirits  of  the 
dead.  The  Master  said:  'While  you  are  not  able 
to  serve  men,  how  can  you  serve  their  spirits?' 
Ke  Loo  then  said :  '  I  venture  to  ask  about  death. ' 
He  was  answered:  'While  you  do  not  know  life, 
how  can  you  know  about  death?'"  (Analects, 
bk.  xi.,  c.  xi.) 

In  the  "Analects,"  it  is  also  related  of  Confucius 
by  his  disciples:  "The  subjects  on  which  the  Mas- 
ter did  not  talk,  were :  extraordinary  things,  feats 
of  strength,  disorder,  and  spiritual  beings."  (Bk. 
vii.,  c.  x.) 

Yet  in  the  " Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  he  is  quoted 
as  declaring:  "How  abundantly  do  spiritual  be- 
ings display  the  powers  that  belong  to  them! 
We  look  for  them  but  we  do  not  see  them;  we 
listen  but  we  do  not  hear  them.  Yet  they  per- 
meate all  things  and  there  is  nothing  without 
them."     (C.  xvi.,  v.  I,  2.) 

In  the  "  Yi  King"  much  more  is  said  about  the 
general  subject  and  this  definition  of  spirit  is 
given:  "When  we  speak  of  spirit,  we  mean  the 
subtle  element  of  all  things."  (Appendix  v., 
c.  vi.,  10.) 

The  author  of  this  conceived  of  the  universe  as 
the  field  of  operations  and  the  result  of  operations 
of  force  and   substance,  of  static   and   dynamic 


Universal  Relations  283 

powers,  in  the  phenomena  produced  by  which  he 
recognized  the  activities  of  spirit,  thus:  "That 
which  is  unfathomable  in  the  movement  of  the 
passive  and  active  operations,  is  the  presence  of  a 
spiritual  power."  (Yi  King,  appendix  iii.,  sect,  i., 
c.  v.,  32.) 

The  close  similarity  of  this  view  with  the  most 
recent  views  of  modern  scientists  is  illustrated 
yet  more  startlingly  in  this  passage,  also  from  the 
"Yi  King"  (appendix  iii.,  c.  v.,  24) :  "The  succes- 
sive interaction  of  the  passive  and  active  forces 
constitutes  what  is  called  the  flow  of  phenomena." 

The  "Yi  King"  is  a  book,  written  for  the  most 
part  in  highly  symbolical  language, — it  is  often 
utilized  by  the  Chinese  for  purposes  of  divination 
as  will  be  seen, — which  had  even  for  Confucius 
himself  already  become  so  difficult  to  master  and 
at  the  same  time  so  fascinating,  that  the  sage 
once  said  of  it:  "If  some  years  were  added  to  my 
life,  I  would  give  fifty  to  the  study  of  the  Yi  and 
then  I  might  come  to  be  without  great  faults." 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xvi.) 

In  this  book,  i.  e.,  the  "Yi  King,"  Confucius 
said  of  the  clear  perception  of  the  spiritual  activi- 
ties underlying  phenomena:  "He  who  knows  the 
method  of  change  and  transformation,  may  be 
said  to  know  what  is  done  by  spiritual  power." 
(Appendix  iii.,  sect,  i.,  c.  ix.,  58.) 

And  again,  in  this  illustrative  manner:  "Does 
not  he  who  knows  the  causes  of  things,  possess 
spirit-like    wisdom?     The    superior    man,    in    his 


\ 


284  The  Superior  Man 

intercourse  with  the  exalted,  uses  no  flattery; 
and  in  his  intercourse  with  the  humble,  no  coarse 
freedom — does  not  ^this  show  that  he  knows  the 
causes  of  things?"  (Appendix  iii.,  sect,  ii.,  c.  v., 
41.) 

And  yet  more  eloquently  in  this  passage  of  the 
"Li  Ki"  are  the  essential  spirituality  and  pre- 
science of  the  pure  and  sincere  mind  set  forth: 
"When  the  personal  character  is  pure  and  clean, 
the  spirit  and  mind  are  like  those  of  a  spiritual 
being.  When  what  such  an  one  desires  is  about 
to  come  to  pass,  he  is  sure  to  have  premonitions 
of  it,  as  when  Heaven  sends  down  the  rains  in  due 
season  and  the  hills  condense  the  vapours  into 
clouds."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxvi.,  8.) 

This  is  yet  more  concisely  said  in  this  passage 
from  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  (c.  xxiv.), 
already  quoted:  "When  calamities  or  blessings 
are  about  to  befall,  the  good  or  the  evil  will  surely 
be  foreknown  to  him.  He,  therefore,  who  is 
possessed  of  the  completest  sincerity,  is  like  a 
spirit." 

Heaven.  "In  order  to  know  men,  he  may 
not  dispense  with  a  knowledge  of  Heaven." 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xx.,  v.  7.) 

In  the  foregoing  from  the  "Doctrine  of  the 
Mean"  is  announced  both  the  view  of  the  disciples 
of  Confucius  that  there  is  a  divinity  "that  shapes 
our  ends,  rough  hew  them  how  we  will,"  and  also 
that,  through  His  works,  He  may  be  known  of 
men.     This  saying  is  only  another  version  of  this 


Universal  Relations  285 

passage  of  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  i.,  c.  liv., 
1) :  "If  Heaven  and  Earth  were  to  have  no  inter- 
communication, things  would  not  grow  and  flourish 
as  they  do." 

The  expression  "Heaven"  seems  to  stand  rather 
for  all  the  spiritual  beings,  if  more  than  one,  that 
hold  sway  over  the  universe.  Earlier,  it  undoubt- 
edly signified  this;  for  in  the  "Shu  King,"  Mu  is 
credited  with  this  most  extraordinary  statement: 
"Then  he  [/.  e.,  Yao]  commissioned  Khung  and 
Li  to  make  an  end  of  the  communications  between 
Earth  and  Heaven;  and  the  descents  of  spirits 
ceased."     (Pt.  v.,  bk.  xxvii.,  2.) 

By  the  days  of  Confucius  in  any  event,  the 
recognition  of  an  unimaginably  great  universe  of 
spirit  was  firmly  coupled  in  the  minds  of  sages 
with  the  principle  that  man's  duties  here  are  with 
his  fellow- men  and  that  he  will  but  fail  in  their 
performance  if  he  continually  seeks  communion 
with  intelligences  of  the  spirit  universe. 

Confucius  does  not  present  the  view  that  Heaven 
so  communicates  with  Earth  that  there  may  be 
complete  revelation  of  its  purposes  and  processes, 
by  verbal  inspiration  or  otherwise.  Instead,  he 
says:  "Does  Heaven  speak?  The  four  seasons 
pursue  their  courses,  and  all  things  are  continually 
being  produced;  but  does  Heaven  say  anything?" 
(Analects,  bk.  xvii.,  c.  xix.,  v.  3.) 

This  is  further  expatiated  upon  in  "The  Doctiine 
of  the  Mean"  (c.  xvi.,  v.  1,  2)  as  follows:  "The 
Master    said:     'How     abundantly     do    spiritual 


286  The  Superior  Man 

beings  display  the  powers  that  belong  to  them! 
We  look  for  them  but  do  not  see  them;  we  listen 
for  them  but  do  not  hear  them.  Yet  they  enter 
into  all  things  and  there  is  nothing  without  them.'  " 

And  in  the  "Shi  King"  the  continual  presence 
of  these  invisible  witnesses  is  thus  cited  as  abun- 
dant reason  for  virtuous  conduct  when  in  the 
privacy  of  one's  chamber:  "Looked  at  in  your 
chamber,  you  ought  to  be  equally  free  from  shame 
before  the  light  which  shines  in.  Do  not  say: 
1  This  place  is  not  public ;  no  one  can  see  me  here. ' 
The  approaches  of  spiritual  beings  cannot  be 
foretold;  the  more,  therefore,  should  they  not  be 
left  out  of  the  account."  (Major  Odes,  decade 
iii.,  ode  2.) 

Confucius  also  says:  "But  there  is  Heaven — 
it  knows  me!"  (Analects,  bk.  xiv.,  c.  xxxvii., 
v.  2.) 

The  "  Yi  King"  thus  describes  the  greatest  of 
the  joint  offices  of  Heaven  and  Earth:  "The  great 
attribute  of  Heaven  and  Earth  is  the  giving  and 
maintaining  life."     (Appendix  iii.,  c.  i.,  10.) 

And  again  in  the  following,  already  quoted  in 
another  connection:  "Heaven  and  Earth  are  sepa- 
rate and  apart,  but  the  work  which  they  do  is  the 
same.  Male  and  female  are  separate  and  apart, 
but  with  a  common  will  they  seek  the  same  object." 
(Appendix  i.,  c.  xxxviii.,  v.  3.) 

This  idea  is  again  put  forward  in  the  "Li  Ki" 
in  this  fashion:  "Man  is  the  product  of  the  attri- 
butes of  Heaven  and  of  Earth  through  the  inter- 


Universal  Relations  287 

action  of  the  dual  forces  of  nature,  the  union  of 
animal  and  intelligence,  the  finest  and  most  subtle 
matter  of  the  five  elements."  (Bk.  vii.,  sect, 
iii.,  1.) 

This  theory  is  developed  further  in  this  passage 
from  the  same  book:  "This  [i.  c,  the  Grand  Unity] 
separated  and  became  Heaven  and  Earth.  It 
revolved  and  became  the  dual  force  in  nature. 
It  changed  and  became  the  four  seasons.  It  was 
distributed  and  became  the  breathings,  thrilling 
in  the  universal  frame.  Its  lessons,  transmitted 
to  men,  are  called  its  orders;  the  law  and  authority 
of  them  are  in  Heaven."     (Bk.  vii.,  sect,  iv.,  4.) 

Thinking  of  Heaven  as  the  creator  of  man  ap- 
parently caused  it  soon  to  be  addressed  in  prayer 
by  poor  humanity;  and  accordingly  we  find  this 
in  the  "Yi  King"  (appendix  ii.,  sect,  ii.,  c.  xlii., 
6):  "There  is  the  misery  of  having  none  upon 
whom  to  call." 

Confucius  stated  it  in  even  stronger  terms, 
when  he  said:  "He  who  offends  against  Heaven, 
has  none  to  whom  he  can  pray."  (Analects,  bk. 
iii.,  c.  xiii.,  v.  2.) 

Such  prayer,  continually  offered  by  means  of 
a  virtuous  and  useful  life,  Confucius  commended 
and  practised.  As  much  appears  from  this:  "The 
Master  being  very  sick,  Tsze-loo  asked  leave  to 
pray  for  him.  He  said:  'May  such  a  thing  be 
done? '  Tsze-loo  replied : '  It  may.  In  the  Prayers 
it  is  said:  "Prayer  has  been  made  to  the  spirits 
of  the   upper  and  lower  worlds."'     The  Master 


288  The  Superior  Man 

said:  'My  prayer  has  been  for  a  long  time.'" 
(Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxxiv.) 

That  man,  even  before  his  transition,  may  be- 
come the  co-worker,  however,  with  the  spiritual 
forces  which  constitute  Heaven  and  even  of  equal 
dignity  with  them,  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean" 
(c.  xxii.,)  thus  declares:  "Able  to  assist  the  trans- 
forming and  nourishing  powers  of  Heaven  and 
Earth,  he  may  with  Heaven  and  Earth  form  a 
ternion." 

And  again  of  the  man  of  the  completest  sincer- 
ity, i.  e.,  Chinese  scholars  assert,  Confucius: 
"Hence  it  is  said:  'He  is  the  peer  of  Heaven!'" 
(Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  c.  xxxi.,  v.  3.) 

This  is  much  more  explicitly  set  forth  in  this 
passage  from  the  same  book;  also  considered  by 
Chinese  scholars  to  refer  to  Confucius:  "It  is  only 
the  individual  possessed  of  the  most  entire  sincerity 
that  can  exist  under  Heaven,  who  can  adjust  the 
great,  unvarying  relations  of  mankind,  establish 
the  great,  fundamental  virtues  of  humanity,  and 
comprehend  the  transforming  and  nourishing  pro- 
cesses of  Heaven  and  Earth.  Shall  such  an  one 
have  any  being  or  anything  beyond  himself  on 
which  he  depends?"  (Doctrine  of  the  Mean, 
c.  xxxii.,  v.  1.) 

Providence.  "Without  recognizing  the  ordi- 
nances of  Heaven,  it  is  impossible  to  be  a  superior 
man."     (Analects,  bk.  xx.,  c.  iii.,  v.  1.) 

Thus  in  the  "Analects"  Confucius  gives  ex- 
pression to  the  necessity  for  full  recognition  of 


Universal  Relations  289 

the  unchanging  laws  of  the  universe  and  their 
operation. 

In  the  "Yi  King,"  the  blessed  consequences 
of  knowledge  of  these  laws  and  of  trust  in  the 
beneficent  purposes  of  the  powers  that  are  the 
universe,  are  thus  portrayed:  "He  acts  according 
to  the  exigency  of  circumstances  without  being 
carried  away  by  their  current.  He  rejoices  in 
Heaven  and  knows  its  ordinances;  and  hence  he 
has  no  anxieties."  (Appendix  iii.,  sect,  i.,  c.  v., 
22.) 

The  same  sentiment  and  conception  are  voiced 
in  these  words  from  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean" 
(c.  xiv.,  v.  4):  "Thus  it  is  that  the  superior  man 
is  grave  and  calm,  waiting  for  the  appointments 
of  Heaven,  while  the  inferior  man  walks  in  dan- 
gerous paths,  looking  for  lucky  occurrences." 

The  ancients  of  China  had  evolved  from  this, 
the  idea  of  a  just  Providence,  rewarding  for  good 
deeds  and  punishing  for  evil.  Thus  in  the  "Shu 
King,"  I  Yin  is  represented  as  saying:  "Good  and 
evil  do  not  wrongly  befall  men,  but  Heaven  sends 
down  misery  or  happiness  according  to  their 
conduct."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  vi.,  2.) 

And  Ch'eng  Tang  in  the  same  book,  as  follows: 
"The  way  of  Heaven  is  to  bless  the  good  and  make 
the  bad  miserable."     (Pt.  iv.,  bk.  iii.,  2.) 

And  the  Duke  of  Kau  also  in  the  same  book: 
"Heaven  gives  length  of  days  to  the  just  and  the 
intelligent."     (Pt.  v.,  bk.  xvi.,  2.) 

And  King  Wu:  "I  clearly  consider  that,  severe 

10 


290  The  Superior  Man 

as  are  the  inflictions  of  Heaven  on  me,  I  dare  not 
murmur."     (Pt.  v.,  bk.  ix.,  4.) 

The  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean"  says  of  the  supe- 
rior man:  "He  does  not  murmur  against  Heaven." 
(C.  xiv.,  v.  3.) 

Confucius  also  said  of  himself  in  the  "Analects" : 
"I  do  not  murmur  against  Heaven."  (Bk.  xiv., 
c.  xxxvii.,  v.  2.) 

That  this  is  a  universe  of  law,  however,  and  not 
of  special  interpositions  of  Providence,  is  every- 
where insisted  on. 

In  the  "Li  Ki,"  Confucius  is  recorded  as  saying: 
"Heaven  covers  all  without  partiality;  earth 
sustains  and  embraces  all  without  partiality;  the 
sun  and  the  moon  shine  upon  all  without  partial- 
ity."    (Bk.  xxvi.,  6.) 

In  the  "Shu  King,"  Mu  is  reported  to  have 
said:  "It  is  not  Heaven  that  does  not  deal  impar- 
tially with  men,  but  men  ruin  themselves." 
(Pt.  v.,  bk.  xxvii.,  6.) 

And  Zu  Ki,  as  speaking  in  this  fashion:  "It  is 
not  Heaven  that  cuts  short  men's  lives;  they 
themselves  bring  them  to  an  end."  (Shu  King, 
pt.  iv.,  bk.  ix.) 

This  saying  of  Tai  Chai  in  the  same  book  cer- 
tainly has  a  most  modern  sound:  "Calamities  sent 
by  Heaven  may  be  avoided,  but  from  calamities 
brought  on  by  one's  self  there  is  no  escape." 
(Shu  King,  pt.  iv.,  bk.  v.,  sect,  ii.,  2.) 

Confucius  himself  sets  forth  the  conception  of 
the  protection  of  Providence,  thus:  "Heaven  pro- 


Universal  Relations  291 

duced  the  virtue  that  is  in  me.     Hwan  Tuy — what 
can  he  do  to  me?"     (Analects,  bk.  vii.,  c.  xxii.) 

And  this,  also  from  the  "Analects,"  is  yet  more 
to  the  point :  "The  Master  was  put  in  apprehension 
in  K'wang.  He  said:  'Since  the  death  of  King 
Wan,  has  not  the  cause  of  truth  been  lodged  here 
in  me?  If  Heaven  had  wished  to  let  this  cause 
of  truth  perish,  then  I,  a  mortal  yet  to  be  born, 
should  not  have  got  such  a  relation  to  that  cause. 
While  Heaven  does  not  let  this  cause  of  truth 
perish,  what  can  the  people  of  K'wang  do  to  me?  " 
(Analects,  bk.  ix.,  c.  v.) 

This  subject  is  so  extremely  important  and  all 
that  is  found  in  the  Confucian  classics  so  little, 
relatively,  that  the  following  passages,  which  have 
already  been  quoted  in  other  connexions,  are 
again  given:  "Riches  and  honours  depend  upon 
Heaven."     (Analects,  bk.  xii.,  c.  v.,  v.  3.) 

"What  Heaven  confers,  when  once  lost,  will 
not  be  regained."  (Shi  King,  Minor  Odes  of 
the  Kingdom,  decade  v.,  ode  2.) 

"When  Heaven  is  about  to  confer  a  great  office 
on  any  man,  it  first  disciplines  his  mind  with 
suffering  and  his  bones  and  sinews  with  toil.  It 
exposes  him  to  want  and  subjects  him  to  extreme 
poverty.  It  confounds  his  undertakings.  By  all 
these  methods,  it  stimulates  his  mind,  hardens 
him,  and  supplies  his  shortcomings."  (Mencius, 
bk.  vi.,  pt.  ii.,  c.  xv.,  v.  2.) 

"Filial  piety  is  the  constant  requirement  of 
Heaven."     (Hsiao  King,  c.  vii.) 


292  The  Superior  Man 

"Sincerity  is  the  path  of  Heaven."  (Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,  c.  xx.,  v.  18.) 

"Awful  though  Heaven  be,  it  yet  helps  the 
sincere."     (Shu  King,  pt.  v.,  bk.  ix.,  2.) 

In  the  "  Doctrine  of  the  Mean  "  this  last  thought 
is  much  more  thoroughly  worked  out — indeed 
into  a  theory  of  intimate  co-operation  with  Heaven, 
actually  of  ability  to  transform.  This,  to  which 
reference  has  already  been  made  in  the  preceding 
section,  is  set  forth  with  some  fulness  in  this 
passage,  deemed  by  Chinese  scholars  to  refer  to 
Confucius:  "It  is  only  he  who  is  possessed  of  the 
completest  sincerity  that  can  exist  under  Heaven, 
who  can  give  its  full  development  to  his  nature. 
Able  to  give  its  full  development  to  his  own  nature, 
he  can  do  the  same  to  the  nature  of  other  men. 
Able  to  give  its  full  development  to  the  nature  of 
other  men,  he  can  give  their  full  development  to 
the  natures  of  animals  and  things.  Able  to  give 
their  full  development  to  the  natures  of  animals 
and  things,  he  can  assist  the  transforming  and 
nourishing  powers  of  Heaven  and  Earth."  (Doc- 
trine of  the  Mean,  c.  xxii.) 

One  of  the  most  fervent  commendations  of 
music  and  ceremonies,  already  quoted  from  the 
"Li  Ki,"  runs:  "In  music  of  the  grandest  style, 
there  is  the  same  harmony  that  prevails  between 
Heaven  and  Earth ;  in  ceremonies  of  the  grandest 
form  there  is  the  same  graduation  that  exists 
between  Heaven  and  Earth."     (Bk.  xvii.,  sect,  i., 

19.) 


Universal  Relations  293 

The  following  somewhat  cryptic  passage  from 
the  "Yi  King"  illustrates  the  view  of  Confucius 
concerning  the  opposite  tendencies  of  things 
spiritual  and  of  things  material:  "Notes  of  the 
same  pitch  respond  to  one  another;  creatures  of 
the  same  nature  seek  one  another;  water  flows 
toward  the  marsh;  fire  catches  upon  what  is  dry; 
.  .  .  the  sage  makes  his  appearance  and  all  men 
look  to  him.  Things  that  have  their  origin  in 
Heaven,  tend  upward;  things  that  have  their 
origin  in  Earth,  cling  to  what  is  below."  (Appen- 
dix iv.,  sect,  i.,  c.  ii.,  8.) 

The  following  from  the  same  great  book  of 
mystery,  relative  to  the  harmony  that  must  sub- 
sist in  order  that  man  be  truly  great,  is  perhaps 
more  clearly  and  surely  comprehensible:  "The 
great  man  is  he  who  is  in  harmony,  in  his  attri- 
butes, with  Heaven  and  Earth;  in  his  brightness, 
with  sun  and  moon;  in  his  orderly  procedure,  with 
the  four  seasons;  in  his  relations  with  good  and 
evil  fortune,  with  the  spiritual  operations  of 
Providence."  (Yi  King,  appendix  iv.,  sect,  i., 
c.  vi.) 

God.  "There  is  the  great  God;  does  He  hate 
any  one?"  (Shi  King,  Minor  Odes,  decade  iv., 
ode  8.) 

The  number  of  times  in  all  the  Confucian  clas- 
sics that  the  appellation  for  Deity  occurs  which 
indicates  personality  and  not  something  imper- 
sonal or  multi-personal,  like  Heaven,  and  which 
may  accordingly  properly  be  translated,  "God," 


294  The  Superior  Man 

instead  of  "Heaven,"  is  exceedingly  few.  The 
similarity  of  the  use  of  words,  one  singular  and 
the  other  plural  in  form,  to  the  "Jehovah"  and 
"Elohim"  of  the  Hebrews  is  worthy  of  remark. 
The  foregoing  saying,  Christian,  even  Christ-like 
in  its  spirit,  occurs  in  one  of  the  Odes  of  the  "Shi 
King."  In  the  same  book  are  found  the  only 
passages  in  all  these  classics  which  affirm  that 
God  has  spoken  to  any  man.  There  are  three  of 
them,  of  which  this  is  the  only  one  of  general 
application:  "God  said  to  King  Wan:  'Be  not  like 
them  who  reject  this  and  cling  to  that.  Be  not 
like  them  who  are  ruled  by  their  likes  and  desires.' " 
(Shi  King,  Major  Odes,  decade  i.,  ode  7.) 

If  this  were  indeed  the  word  of  God  and  His 
only  revelation  to  man,  this  command  to  be  free 
and  impartial  and  not  to  be  ruled  by  mere  desire 
could  not  be  deemed  unworthy. 

In  the  "Li  Ki"  the  following  circumstantial 
account  is  given  of  the  rise  from  primitive  barbar- 
ity, reaching  its  acme  in  the  worship — not  of  gods 
— but  of  God:  "Formerly  the  ancient  kings  had 
no  houses.  In  winter  they  lived  in  caves  which 
they  had  excavated,  and  in  summer  in  nests  which 
they  had  framed.  They  knew  not  the  transform- 
ing power  of  fire,  but  ate  the  fruit  of  plants  and 
trees  and  the  flesh  of  birds  and  beasts,  drinking 
their  blood  and  swallowing  hair  and  feathers. 
They  knew  not  yet  the  use  of  flax  and  silk,  but 
clothed  themselves  with  feathers  and  skins. 

"The  later  sages  then  arose,  and  men  learned 


Universal  Relations  295 

to  utilize  the  blessing  of  fire.  They  moulded 
metals  and  fashioned  clay,  so  as  to  rear  towers 
with  structures  on  them  and  houses  with  windows 
and  doors.  They  toasted,  grilled,  broiled,  and 
roasted.  They  produced  must  and  sauces.  They 
dealt  with  the  flax  and  silk,  so  as  to  form  linen 
and  silken  fabrics.  They  were  thus  able  to  nourish 
the  living  and  to  make  offerings  to  the  dead,  to 
serve  the  spirits  of  the  departed  and  God."  (Li 
Ki,  bk.  vii.,  sect,  i.,  9.) 

The  exalted  conception  which  these  ancients, 
so  chary  about  using  His  name  or  claiming  a  know- 
ledge of  Him  which  mortal  may  not  attain,  really 
had  of  God,  and  of  the  qualifications  required  in 
order  to  worship  Him  in  spirit  and  in  truth,  is 
indicated  in  this  text  from  the  "Li  Ki":  "It  is 
only  the  sage  who  can  sacrifice  to  God."  (Bk. 
xxi.,  sect,  i.,  6.) 

To  this,  also,  may  be  referred  with  greatest 
emphasis  this  other  saying  in  the  "Li  Ki":  "Do 
not  take  liberties  with  or  weary  spiritual  beings." 
(Bk.  xv.,  22.) 

The  shock  with  which  this  idea  of  remoteness 
and  even  exclusiveness  must  needs  be  received 
by  a  people  who  have  so  lately  emerged — if,  in- 
deed, we  have  emerged — from  the  most  violent 
controversies  as  to  which  man  or  group  of  men 
knew  all  about  the  Almighty,  His  designs,  His 
will,  His  purposes  with  His  creature,  man,  may 
possibly  be  relieved  a  little  by  the  reflection  that 
this  aloofness  would  at  least  be  unfavourable  to 


296  The  Superior  Man 

the  development  of  that  levity  and  jocose  blas- 
phemy concerning  the  Great  Spirit  to  which  some- 
how our  over-familiarity  has  conduced. 

The  ancient  Chinese  had  the  same  conception 
of  the  possibility  of  ascertaining  the  future  from 
the  Divine  Mind,  by  oracular  utterances  or  divina- 
tion, which  was  also  common  to  the  Greeks,  the 
Romans,  and  other  peoples  in  ancient  times.  The 
following  passage  from  the  "Yi  King"  charges 
the  superior  man  to  engage  in  no  important  under- 
taking without  thus  seeking  Divine  enlighten- 
ment and  guidance:  "Therefore,  when  a  superior 
man  is  about  to  take  action  of  a  more  private  or 
of  a  public  character,  he  asks  the  Yi,  making  his 
inquiry  in  words.  It  receives  his  order  and  the 
answer  comes  as  the  echo's  response.  Be  the 
subject  remote  or  near,  mysterious  or  deep,  he 
forthwith  knows  of  what  kind  will  be  the  coming 
result."     (Appendix  iii.,  sect,  i.,  c.  x.,  60.) 

The  foregoing  has  striking  similarity  to  the 
consultation  of  the  oracle  in  the  days  of  classic 
Greece.  The  "Li  Ki"  gives  the  following  descrip- 
tion, however,  of  divining  by  the  use  of  the  "Yi 
King,"  which  shows  that  a  most  peculiar  and  indeed 
singular  custom  of  divining  had  sprung  up  among 
the  Chinese:  "Anciently  the  sages,  having  deter- 
mined the  phenomena  of  Heaven  and  Earth  in 
states  of  rest  and  activity,  made  them  the  basis 
for  the  Yi.  The  diviner  held  the  tortoise-shell 
in  his  arms,  with  his  face  toward  the  south,  while 
the  son  of  Heaven,  in  his  dragon-robe  and  square- 


Universal  Relations  297 

topped  cap,  stood  with  his  face  toward  the  north. 
The  latter,  however,  discerning  his  mind,  felt  it 
necessary  to  proceed  to  obtain  a  decision  upon 
what  he  purposed,  thus  showing  that  he  dared 
not  pursue  his  own  course  and  deferred  to  the 
will  of  Heaven."     (Li  Ki,  bk.  xxi.,  sect,  ii.,  25.) 

Though  nowhere  in  the  "Analects"  or  "The 
Great  Learning,"  all  or  most  of  the  text  of  which 
is  attributed  to  Confucius  though  handed  down 
by  his  disciples,  is  there  mention  of  the  personal 
name,  God,  as  distinguished  from  the  impersonal 
one,  Heaven,  which  is  several  times  used,  in  the 
"Li  Ki"  the  following  is  found:  "These  were  the 
words  of  the  Master,  'The  ancient  and  wise  kings 
of  the  three  dynasties  served  the  spiritual  intel- 
ligences of  Heaven  and  Earth.  They  invariably 
consulted  the  tortoise-shells  and  divining  stalks; 
and  did  not  presume  to  use  their  private  judg- 
ment in  serving  God.'"     (Bk.  xxix.,  52.) 

And  in  the  "Doctrine  of  the  Mean,"  the  fol- 
lowing: "By  the  ceremonies  of  the  sacrifices  to 
Heaven  and  Earth  they  served  God." 

It  is  but  a  step,  to  be  sure, — and  one  which  was 
frequently  taken  in  all  parts  of  the  world,- — from 
trust  in  Providence  to  a  belief  that  God  determines 
all  fortuitous  events  and  accordingly  that  by 
observation  of  them  His  will  may  be  known. 

In  another  place,  however,  the  "Li  Ki"  seems 
pointedly  to  disapprove  attempts  to  penetrate 
the  mysteries  of  the  future:  "Do  not  try  ...  to 
fathom  what  has  not  yet  arrived."     (Bk.  xv.,  22.) 


298  The  Superior  Man 

It  is,  perhaps,  sufficiently  obvious  from  all  that 
is  in  this  book — and  yet  more  from  all  of  the  text 
of  the  Confucian  classics,  that  is  ascribed  to  Con- 
fucius, or  apparently  emanates  from  him — that 
the  sage  did  not  intend  to  dogmatize  concerning 
the  personality,  the  identity,  the  nature,  the  pur- 
poses of  God,  nor  to  limit  the  earnest  seekers  after 
Him,  whatever  path  they  were  destined  to  pursue 
in  this  so  bootless  quest  for  that  which  is  unknow- 
able. He  was  but  a  sage,  seeking  to  make  of  his 
fellow-men  spiritual  seers,  apprehending  clearly 
and  sincerely  the  truths  that  would  guide  them 
aright  along  the  simple,  but  far  from  easy,  path 
which  mortals  should  tread.  Should  he  guide 
them,  indeed,  into  the  mental  morass  of  mere 
theological  speculation  upon  the  unknown  and 
unknowable? 

Yet  withal  his  own  view  was  once  clearly  enun- 
ciated: "I  seek  unity,  all  pervading."  (Analects, 
bk.  xv.,  c.  ii.,  v.  2.) 


APPENDIX 

THE   "GREAT   PRINCIPLE"   OF  CONFUCIUS 

Dr.  Chen  Huan  Chang  in  his  work  "The  Economic 
Principles  of  Confucius  and  His  School"  gives  the 
following  version  of  a  passage  in  the  "Li  Ki"  (bk.  vii., 
sect,  i.,  2,  3): 

"When  the  Great  Principle  (of  the  Great  Simi- 
larity) prevails,  the  whole  world  becomes  a  republic; 
they  elect  men  of  talents,  virtue,  and  ability;  they 
talk  about  sincere  agreement,  and  cultivate  universal 
peace.  Thus  men  do  not  regard  as  their  parents 
only  their  own  parents,  nor  treat  as  their  children  only 
their  own  children.  A  competent  provision  is  secured 
for  the  aged  till  their  death,  employment  for  the 
middle-aged,  and  the  means  of  growing  up  for  the 
young.  The  widowers,  widows,  orphans,  childless 
men,  and  those  who  are  disabled  by  disease,  arc  all 
sufficiently  maintained.  Each  man  has  his  rights, 
and  each  woman  her  individuality  safeguarded. 
They  produce  wealth,  disliking  that  it  should  be 
thrown  away  upon  the  ground,  but  not  wishing  to 
keep  it  for  their  own  gratification.  Disliking  idleness, 
they  labour,  but  not  alone  with  a  view  to  their  own 
advantage.  In  this  way  selfish  schemings  arc  re- 
pressed and  find  no  way  to  arise.  Robbers,  filchcrs, 
and  rebellious  traitors  do  not  exist.     Hence  the  outer 

299 


300  The  Superior  Man 

doors  remain  open,  and  are  not  shut.     This  is  the 
state  of  what  I  call  the  Great  Similarity. 

"Now  that  the  Great  Principle  has  not  yet  been 
developed,   the   world   is   inherited   through   family. 
Each  one  regards  as  his  parents  only  his  own  parents, 
and  treats  as  his  children  only  his  own  children.     The 
wealth  of  each  and  his  labour  are  only  for  his  self- 
interest.     Great  men  imagine  it  is  the  rule  that  their 
estates  should  descend  in  their  own  families.     Their 
object  is  to  make  the  walls  of  their  cities  and  suburbs 
strong  and  their  ditches  and  moats  secure.     Rites 
and  justice  are  regarded  as  the  threads  by  which  they 
seek  to  maintain  in  its  correctness  the  relation  be- 
tween ruler  and  minister;  in  its  generous  regard  that 
between   father  and   son;  in  its  harmony   that  be- 
tween  elder   brother   and   younger;   and   in  a  com- 
munity   of    sentiment    that    between    husband    and 
wife;  and   in   accordance   with   them   they  regulate 
consumption,    distribute    land    and    dwellings,    dis- 
tinguish the    men    of   military  ability  and  cunning, 
and  achieve  their  work  with  a  view  to  their  own 
advantage.      Thus    it    is   that   selfish    schemes    and 
enterprises  are  constantly  taking  their  rise,  and  war 
is  inevitably  forthcoming.     In   this   course    of   rites 
and   justice,   Yu,  T'ang,   Wen,  Wu,    Ch'eng   Wang, 
and    the   Duke  of  Chou   are  the  best  examples  of 
good  government.     Of  these  six  superior  men,  every 
one  was  attentive   to   the  rites,  thus  to   secure  the 
display  of  justice,   the  realization  of  sincerity,   the 
exhibition  of  errors,  the  exemplification  of  benevo- 
lence, and  the  discussion  of  courtesy,   showing  the 
people  all  the  constant  virtues.     If  any  ruler,  having 
power  and  position,  would  not  follow  this  course,  he 
should  be  driven  away  by  the  multitude  who  regard 


Appendix  301 

him  as  a  public  enemy.     This  is  the  state  of  what  I 
call  the  Small  Tranquillity." 

Dr.  Chen  identifies  "The  Small  Tranquillity"  with 
"The  Advancing  Peace  Stage,"  into  which  men  pro- 
ceed in  the  form  of  nations  out  of  the  primitive  "  Dis- 
orderly Stage,"  and  "The  Great  Similarity"  with 
"The  Extreme  Peace  Stage,"  i.  e.,  with  what  Tenny- 
son meant  in  "  Locksley  Hall  " : 

"When  the  war  drums  throb  no  longer  and 
the  battle-flags  are  furled 
In  the  parliament  of  man,  the  federation  of 
the  world." 

Proceeding  with  this  interpretation,  Dr.  Chen  says: 
"This  is  the  most  important  statement  of  all  Con- 
fucius' teachings.  The  stage  of  Great  Similarity 
or  Extreme  Peace  is  the  final  aim  of  Confucius;  it  is 
the  golden  age  of  Confucianism.  If  we  make  a  com- 
parison between  the  Great  Similarity  and  the  Small 
Tranquillity,  we  may  get  a  clear  view.  Everyone 
knows  that  Confucianism  has  five  social  relations 
and  five  moral  constants:  ruler  and  subject,  father 
and  son,  elder  and  younger  brothers,  husband  and 
wife,  friend  and  friend,  make  up  the  five  social  rela- 
tions; love,  justice,  rite,  wisdom,  and  sincerity  make 
up  the  five  moral  constants.  But,  according  to  the 
statement  of  Confucius  himself,  they  belong  only  to 
the  Small  Tranquillity.  Everyone  knows  that  Con- 
fucianism is  in  favour  of  monarchical  government  and 
of  filial  piety.  But  they  are  good  only  in  the  Small 
Tranquillity.  In  the  Great  Similarity,  the  whole 
world  is  the  only  social  organization,  and  the  indi- 
vidual is  the  independent  unit ;  both  socialistic  and  indi- 


302  The  Superior  Man 

vidualistic  characters  reach  the  highest  point.  There 
is  no  national  state,  so  that  there  is  no  war,  no  need 
of  defence,  nor  of  men  of  military  ability  and  cun- 
ning. Men  of  talents,  virtue,  and  ability  are  chosen 
by  the  people,  so  that  the  people  themselves  are  the 
sovereign,  and  the  relation  between  ruler  and  subject 
does  not  exist.  Man  and  woman  are  not  bound  by 
the  tie  of  marriage,  so  that  the  relations  between 
husband  and  wife,  between  father  and  son,  and  be- 
tween brothers  do  not  exist.  The  only  relation  that 
remains  is  friendship.  There  is  no  family,  so  that 
there  is  no  inheritance,  no  private  property,  no  selfish 
scheme.  There  is  no  class,  so  that  the  only  classi- 
fication is  made  either  by  age  or  by  sex;  but  whether 
old,  middle-aged,  or  young,  whether  man  or  woman, 
each  satisfies  his  needs.  The  Great  Principle  of  the 
Great  Similarity  prevails,  so  that  everyone  is  naturally 
as  good  as  everyone  else  and  the  distinction  of  the 
five  moral  constants  is  gone.  Each  has  only  natural 
love  toward  others,  regardless  of  artificial  rites  and 
justice.  Speaking  of  the  Small  Tranquillity,  Con- 
fucius gives  six  superior  men  as  examples,  but  for  the 
Great  Similarity,  he  does  not  mention  any  one,  be- 
cause it  has  never  existed.  In  the  Canon  of  History, 
Confucius  takes  up  Yao  and  Shun  to  represent  the 
stage  of  Great  Similarity  as  they  did  not  hand  down 
their  thrones  to  their  sons,  yet  he  does  not  mention 
them  here.  The  principle  of  the  Three  Stages  is  the 
principle  of  progress;  we  must  look  for  the  golden 
age  in  the  future;  the  Extreme  Peace  or  the  Great 
Similarity  is  the  goal." 

The  similarity  of  this  conception  to  the  social 
scheme  of  Socrates,  as  set  forth  in  Plato's  "  Republic," 
is  remarkable,  as  also  its  similarity  to  the  views  of 


Appendix  303 

advanced  socialists  nowadays.  It  is  indeed  signifi- 
cant and  weighty  if  these  two  greatest  intellects  of 
the  ancients  and  perhaps  of  all  mankind  saw  this 
ultimate  goal  alike.  But  the  interpretation  may  in 
some  regards  be  deemed  doubtful ;  and  certainly  others 
have  interpreted  it  otherwise.  Thus  Lcgge  translates 
the  passage,  using  the  past  tense  throughout,  as  follows : 
"When  the  Grand  Course  was  pursued,  a  public 
and  common  spirit  ruled  all  under  the  sky ;  they  chose 
men  of  talents,  virtue,  and  ability;  their  words  were 
sincere,  and  what  they  cultivated  was  harmony. 
Thus  men  did  not  love  their  parents  only,  nor  treat 
as  children  only  their  own  sons.  A  competent  pro- 
vision was  secured  for  the  aged  till  their  death,  employ- 
ment for  the  able-bodied,  and  the  means  of  growing 
up  to  the  young.  They  showed  kindness  and  com- 
passion to  widows,  orphans,  childless  men,  and  those 
who  were  disabled  by  disease,  so  that  they  were  all 
sufficiently  maintained.  Males  had  their  proper  work, 
and  females  had  their  homes.  (They  accumulated) 
articles  (of  value)  disliking  that  they  should  be  thrown 
away  upon  the  ground,  but  not  wishing  to  keep  them 
for  their  own  gratification.  (They  laboured)  with 
their  strength,  disliking  that  it  should  not  be  exerted, 
but  not  exerting  it  (only)  with  a  view  to  their  own 
advantage.  In  this  way  (selfish)  schemings  were 
repressed  and  found  no  development.  Robbers, 
filchers,  and  rebellious  traitors  did  not  show  them- 
selves, and  hence  the  outer  doors  remained  open,  and 
were  not  shut.  This  was  (the  period  of)  what  we 
call  the  Grand  Union. 

"Now  that  the  Grand  Course  has  fallen  into  disuse 
and  obscurity,  the  kingdom  is  a  family  inheritance. 
Everyone  loves  (above  all  others)  his  own  parents 


304  The  Superior  Man 

and  cherishes  (as)  children  (only)  his  own  sons. 
People  accumulate  goods  and  exert  their  strength 
for  their  own  advantage.  Great  men  imagine  it  is 
the  rule  that  their  estates  should  descend  in  their 
own  families.  Their  object  is  to  make  the  walls  of 
their  cities  and  suburbs  strong  and  their  ditches  and 
moats  secure.  The  rules  of  propriety  and  of  what  is 
right  are  regarded  as  the  threads  by  which  they  seek 
to  maintain  in  its  correctness  the  relation  between 
ruler  and  minister ;  in  its  generous  regard  that  between 
father  and  son;  in  its  harmony  that  between  elder 
brother  and  younger;  and  in  a  community  of  senti- 
ment that  between  husband  and  wife;  and  in  accord- 
ance with  them  they  frame  buildings  and  measures; 
lay  out  the  fields  and  hamlets  (for  the  dwellings  of  the 
husbandmen);  adjudge  the  superiority  to  men  of 
valour  and  knowledge ;  and  regulate  their  achievements 
with  a  view  to  their  own  advantage.  Thus  it  is  that 
(selfish)  schemes  and  enterprises  are  constantly  taking 
their  rise,  and  recourse  is  had  to  arms;  and  thus  it 
was  (also)  that  Yu,  Thang,  Wan,  and  Wu,  King 
Khang,  and  the  Duke  of  Kau  obtained  their  distinc- 
tion. Of  these  six  great  men  everyone  was  very 
attentive  to  the  rules  of  propriety,  thus  to  secure  the 
display  of  righteousness,  the  realization  of  sincerity, 
the  exhibition  of  errors,  the  exemplification  of  benev- 
olence, and  the  discussion  of  courtesy,  showing  the 
people  all  the  normal  virtues.  Any  rulers  who  did  not 
follow  this  course  were  driven  away  by  those  who 
possessed  power  and  position,  and  all  regarded  them 
as  pests.  This  is  the  period  of  what  we  call  Small 
Tranquillity." 

But  whether  past  or  future  is  intended,  undoubtedly 
it  is  the  "golden  age,"  or  ideal  state,  which  is  meant. 


Appendix  305 

The  open  question  as  to  whether  the  Grand  Course 
is  past  or  yet  to  come,  is  of  course  due  to  the  ideo- 
graphic form  of  the  language;  owing  to  his  standing 
as  a  Confucian  scholar,  Dr.  Chen  is  certainly  entitled 
to  have  his  interpretation  preferred,  if  all  else  is  equal. 
The  statement  concerning  safeguarding  the  indi- 
viduality of  women  would  perhaps  scarcely  seem  to 
warrant  the  notion  that  the  idea  of  the  family,  upon 
which  Confucius  built  his  entire  superstructure  of 
personal  and  governmental  relations,  should  be  aban- 
doned; Legge  translated  this,  it  should  be  noted, 
"Males  had  their  proper  work,  and  females  had  their 
homes." 


INDEX 


Art  of  Living:  Deemed  the 
highest,  6;  abiding  "in  the 
highest  excellence,"  7;  self- 
development,  7;  its  pursuit 
possible  for  all,  7;  advance 
independent  of  others,  8; 
learning  in  order  to  attain, 
8;  cultivating  one's  capa- 
bilities, 8;  exemplifying  vir- 
tue, 8;  order  of  development, 
10;  rules  of  conduct,  10; 
path  open  for  ordinary  as 
well  as  superior  man,  10; 
scheme  of  adaptation,  1 1 ;  not 
finished  until  death,  1 1 ;  as 
conceived  by  Confucius,  14; 
preparation  for  practice  of, 

29 

Arts:  Seek  relaxation  and  en- 
joyment in,  52;  cultivation 
of,  249;  beneficial  for  state 
to  encourage,  251 

Arts,  Fine  in  General,  248- 
251:  Patronage  by  central 
government,  248;  rulers 
should  make  pleasure  com- 
mon to  all,  248;  power  to 
enjoy  beauty  should  be 
general,  249;  Confucius'  re- 
cognition of  art,  249;  relax- 
ation and  enjoyment,  249; 
Odes  arouse  the  mind,  249; 
recreation  in  the  arts,  249; 
frequent  theme  of  discourse 
by  the  Master,  249;  aesthetic 
subjects,  250;  painting,  250; 


ornament,  251;  the  Book  of 
Poetry,  251;  the  Book  of 
Music,  251 
Aspiration  :  To  become  supe- 
rior man,  1 ;  true  aspiration, 
85;  contrasted  with  its  op- 
posite, 85;  working  for  that 
which  other  men  cannot 
see,  85;  portrait  of  him  one 
should  aspire  to  be,  86;  to 
hear,  to  learn,  to  practise, 
86,  87;  desire  for  gain,  87; 
distinction  and  notoriety  de- 
fined, 88 

B 
Business:  Its  management,  63 


Ceremonies:  To  find  enjoy- 
ment in,  52 ;  not  to  be  neg- 
lected, 263;  music  within, 
ceremonies  without,  264; 
short  and  few  as  possible, 
264;  constitute  a  language, 
264;  highest  style  of  ele- 
gance, 265;  an  understand- 
ing of,  265;  perfection  of, 
265;  transforming  power  of, 
265;  forming  an  inter-rela- 
tionship between  the  seen 
and  unseen,  266;  power  to 
elevate,  266 

Class  Distinctions:  Abol- 
ished by  learning,  23 

Comfort:  Contrary  of  virtue, 


307 


308 


Index 


Comfort — Continued 

3,  39,  40;  Hwuy,  paragon 
of  virtue,  often  in  want,  93; 
superior  man  not  concerned 
about  poverty,  94;  To  be 
poor  without  murmuring  is 
difficult,  94 

Conduct,  120-126:  The 
golden  rule,  120;  reciprocity, 
120;  set  forth  in  "The  Great 
Learning,"  120,  121;  serve 
men,  not  spiritual  beings, 
121;  men  of  perfect  virtue, 
122;  superior  man  loves 
because  of  merit,  122;  man's 
desire  to  teach,  122;  not 
blind  to  the  faults  of  others, 
123;  forgetting  wickedness, 
123 ;  charity  towards  all,  123 ; 
obligations,  123;  the  Masters' 
rule  of  recompense,  124; 
only  the  truly  virtuous  know 
how  to  love  or  hate,  124; 
what  persons  the  superior 
man  hates,  125;  love  for  all, 
125;  in  order  to  be  loved, 
125;  benevolence,   126 

Confucius:  Did  not  claim  in- 
spiration, Introduction,  xi; 
works  of,  and  of  his  disciples, 
Introduction,  xiii ;  life  of,  xvii ; 
central  idea  of,  1;  personal 
development,  1 1 ;  divined 
that  the  mind  must  first  be 
honest  with  itself,  14;  pur- 
suit of  learning,  23;  not 
born  in  possession  of  know- 
ledge, 28;  memorizing,  29; 
content  with  poverty,  47; 
faults,  55;  not  equal  to 
superior  man,  55,  56;  know- 
ing why,  60;  study  of  Yi,  74; 
would  make  faults  few,  74; 
expressions  of  humility,  80; 
to  be  mentioned  with  honour 
in  future  ages,  88;  his  de- 
meanour, 108;  observance  of 
sportsman 's  ethics,  113;  prac- 
tises polite  evasion,  119; 
charity    towards    all,     123; 


feelings  towards  those  who 
possess  sharp  tongues,  125; 
how  his  disciples  considered 
he  would  govern,  183;  loss 
of  office,  239,  249;  "The 
Odes"  a  frequent  theme,  of 
discourse,  249;  counsels  his 
son  to  learn  "The  Odes," 
252 ;  equality  with  other  men, 
253;  reforms  the  music,  258; 
appreciation  of  best  music, 
and  value  placed  upon  it, 
258;  condemnation  of  music 
he  considered  unworthy,  260; 
counsels  his  son  about  the 
study  of  classical  music,  261 ; 
his  skill  upon  the  musical 
stone,  261;  raises  a  mound 
over  the  grave  of  his 
parents,  270;  sacrificing  to 
the  dead,  271;  consciousness 
of  presence  of  invisible  forces, 
286;  commendation  and 
practice  of  prayer,  288;  "I 
do  not  murmur  against 
Heaven, "  290;  consciousness 
of  the  protection  of  Provi- 
dence, 291 ;  belief  in  his 
mission,  291 
Constancy:  Impossible,  if, 
keeping  up  appearances,  56 

D 

Death  and  Immortality,  267- 
271:  Belief  accepted  by 
Confucius,  267;  soul  can  go 
anywhere,  267;  spirit  issues 
forth  in  condition  of  glori- 
ous brightness,  268;  scien- 
tific investigation,  268 ;  value 
•f  man's  words  as  he  ap- 
proaches death,  268;  sani- 
tary precautions  at  time  of 
death,  268 ;  method  employed 
to  ascertain  if  death  had 
taken  place,  268;  care  with 
which  bodies  are  guarded 
lest  burial  takes  place  before 
life  is  extinct,  269;  repug- 


Index 


309 


De  ath — Contin  ned 
nance  at  death,  269;  ethics 
of  burial,  269;  raises  a  mound 
over  the  grave  of  his  parents, 
270;  calling  back  the  spirit, 
270,  271;  purpose  and  signi- 
ficance of  the  ceremony,  z~i 

Demeanour,  106-113:  Should 
be  grave,  106,  107;  insinuat- 
ing appearance,  107;  insin- 
cerity, 107;  demeanour  of 
Confucius,  108;  of  superior 
men,  108 

Departed  Ancestors:  Com- 
munionwith, 271-284;  served 
the  dead,  271;  sacrificed  to 
the  dead,  271;  accumulating 
goodness,  272;  small  acts  of 
goodness,  2J2;  disembodied 
spirits  enjoyed  offerings,  273 ; 
man,  when  dead,  in  ghostly 
state,  274;  to  be  treated  as 
neither  wholly  living  nor 
wholly  dead,  274;  presenta- 
tion of  offerings  constitute 
union  with  the  disembodied, 
274;  intercourse  with  spirit- 
ual intelligences  thus  main- 
tained, 274;  mischief  of  mis- 
cellaneous seeking  after  com- 
munication with  departed 
spirits,  275;  consciousness 
after  death,  275;  general 
sacrifices,  276;  sacrifices 
should  not  be  frequently 
repeated,  276;  liberties 
should  not  be  taken  with 
spiritual  beings,  277;  in  com- 
munion desire  for  personal 
gratification  should  not 
enter,  277;  serving  spiritual 
intelligences,  277;  method  of 
preparing  for,  and  conducting 
ceremonies,  278;  sincerity 
absolute  necessity,  278;  re- 
ward, the  perfecting  of  self, 
279;  object,  to  bring  down 
spirits  from  above,  279; 
ceremonies,  279;  the  spell 
of  music,  280;  the  third  day 


of  discipline  appear  those 
for  whom  it  has  been  exer- 
cised, 280 

Deportment,  108-112:  Vir- 
tuous manners,  108;  bad 
manners,  109;  affable  and 
adulatory  deportment,  no; 
deportmcntnotsubscrvicncy, 
no;  good  and  bad  manners, 
no,  III;  avoidance  of  dis- 
play, III ;  behaviour  to  girls 
and  servants,  III ;  respect  to 
elders,  112;  reserve  of  supe- 
rior man  toward  his  son,  1 12 ; 
friendship,  112 

Deposing  a  Ruler,  the  Right 
of,  245-247 :  Attitude  toward 
one's  ruler,  245 ;  privilege  of  a 
minister,  246;  remonstrance 
should  not  be  too  frequent, 
246;  observance  of  the  rules 
of  propriety,  246;  a  great 
minister,  247;  to  depose  a 
prince,  247;  the  tyrant  Chow 
example  of  unworthy  sov- 
ereign, 247 

Development  of  Good  in 
Others:  Accomplished  by 
sincerity,  33;  not  by  "cor- 
recting" them,  78;  require- 
ments, 94;  qualities  to  be 
sought,  95;  real  qualities 
exhibited,  103;  exacting  in 
employment,  103;  enlarging 
self,  122;  developing  admir- 
able qualities,  122;  teachers 
of  others,  122 

Divorce,  146-151:  Process  of 
divorce,  147,  148;  disabilities 
and  disadvantages,  149; 
recognized  causes,  150;  not  a 
court  proceeding,i5i ;  rule  for 
the  relation  of  husband  and 
wife,  151 

E 

Earnestness,  76-80:  Going 
with  one's  heart,  76;  earnest 
effort  necessary  to  achieve- 
ment,  77;  giving  one's  self 


3io 


Index 


Earnestness — Continued 
earnestly,  78 ;  uninstructed 
earnestness,  78;  "He  who 
aims  at  complete  virtue  is 
earnest,"  79;  the  youth 
should  be  earnest,  79;  an 
essential  of  perfect  virtue,  80 ; 
result  of,  80 

Education,  Universal,  221- 
231:  Necessity  for  general 
education,  221;  obliterates 
distinction  of  classes,  221; 
rank  determined  by  training, 
221;  pre-natal  education, 
222;  value  and  potency  of, 
222;  relation  of  education 
to  government,  222;  unin- 
structed men,  223 ;  education 
necessary  to  him  who  would 
lead  others,  223;  attention 
paid  to  education  in  filial 
and  fraternal  duties,  223; 
education  test  of  political 
preferment,  224;  perfection 
of  manners  and  customs 
must  start  in  schools,  224; 
established  means  of,  224; 
competitive  examinations, 
224;  the  object  of  teaching, 
225;  understanding  requisite 
of  teaching,  225;  care  exer- 
cised in  choice  of  teacher, 
226;  the  skilful  teacher,  226; 
"I  do  not  open  the  truth  to 
one  who  is  not  eager  for 
knowledge,"  227;  rote  learn- 
ing, 228;  teacher  not  treated 
as  a  subject,  229;  objects  to 
be  sought  in  education,  229 ; 
desirability  of  class  work, 
229;  method  of  Confucius, 
229;  importance  of  popular 
education,  231 
Emotions  and  Desires:  If 
swayed  by,  conduct  is  wrong, 
13,  35.  36,  37;  abuses  of,  37, 
38;  must  reduce,  in  order  to 
maintain  resolution,  45,  46; 
delusion  to  "wreck  one's 
life"  in  anger,  51 


Enjoyment:  When  injurious, 
when  advantageous,  52;  in 
worthy  friends,   126 

Ethics  of  the  Mind:  Mind 
must  be  honest  with  itself, 
14:  spirit  and  teaching  of 
Confucius,  14;  design  of  the 
Book  of  Poetry,  14;  pre- 
determination of  course,  15; 
the  open  mind,  15,  16;  when 
mind  not  dominant,  35 

Example,  126-13 1 :  Advanta- 
geous and  injurious  friend- 
ships, 126;  frequent  the  com- 
pany of  men  of  principle, 
126;  youth  should  cultivate 
friendship  of  the  good,  126; 
friendship  of  dissolute,  126; 
intimacy  with  flatterers,  127; 
distinction  between  the  su- 
perior and  inferior  man,  127 ; 
when  and  to  whom  to  speak, 
127;  figurative  admonition, 
127;  the  value  of  good  ex- 
ample, 128;  proper  associ- 
ates, 129;  virtuous  manners 
constitute  virtue  of  a  neigh- 
borhood, 129;  evil  man  use- 
ful for  instruction,  129;  must 
associate  with  all  mankind, 
130;  "virtue  is  not  left  to 
stand  alone,"  131 


Fame:  Report  of  the  multitude 
not  decisive,  88,  89;  to  be 
loved  by  the  good  and  hated 
by  the  bad,  89;  man  of 
exalted  aim,  90;  indifference 
toward  worldly  reward  or 
failure,  90;  desire  to  rightly 
die,  90;  "object  of  dislike  at 
forty,  "95 

Family  Regulation,  137-139: 
Regulation  of  one's  own 
family,  137;  self-develop- 
ment necessary,  138;  re- 
spect and  love  necessary  to 
service,    138;  love  leads   to 


Index 


3ii 


Family  Regulation — Cont'd 
strictness,  138;  essential  mu- 
tuality of  union  of  hearts, 
138;  woman  counselled  to 
follow  man,  139;  introduc- 
tion of  licentious  associates, 
139;  a  happy  union,  139 

Faults:  Perception  of  one's 
own,  44;  do  not  fear  to  aban- 
don, 54;  do  not  try  to  defend 
or  conceal,  54;  do  not  make 
them  crimes,  54;  inferior 
man  sure  to  gloss,  55;  for- 
tunate that  people  know 
them,  55,  74;  not  reforming, 
74;  study  of  the  Yi,  74; 
Confucius  anxious  to  make 
his  few,  74;  virtues  may  be 
known  by  observing  75 

Pear:  Way  of  superior  man 
threefold,  55;  rise  superior 
to,  57;  disgrace  to  be  un- 
necessarily distressed,  57; 
superior  man  has  nothing  to, 
57 ;  freedom  from,  57 ;  why  be 
anxious  when  internal  exami- 
nation discloses  nothing?  58 

Filial  Piety,  156-165:  Begin- 
ning of,  156;  end  of,  156; 
origin  of  term,  156;  of  Ro- 
mans and  Greeks,  156;  filial 
duty,  157 ;  lack  of  self-respect 
injury  to  parents,  157;  de- 
tailed statement  from  the 
"Li  Ki,"  157,  158;  mutual 
duties  of  parent  and  child, 
158;  effectiveness  of,  158, 
159;  as  tribute  of  gratitude 
dares  not  but  do  his  utmost, 
159;  no  greater  offence  than 
to  be  unfilial,  159;  constant 
requirement  of  Heaven,  159; 
of  all  man's  actions,  none 
greater  than,  159;  degrees  of, 
159,  160;  nature  of,  160; 
son's' wealth  not  hisown,  160; 
personal  sacrifice  necessary 
even  for  lowest  order  of,  160; 
reverence  necessary  as  well 
as  support  for  physical  needs 


161;  true  rule  of  conduct 
laid  down  by  Confucius,  162 ; 
errors  of  father  not  to  be 
magnified,  102;  ri^ht  of  son 
to  reprove  limited,  162;  five 
things  recognized  as  unfilial, 
163;  Shun,  filial  piety  of, 
163;  greatest  of  unfilial 
things,  163;  not  more  re- 
quired than  one  is  able  to  do, 
164;  test  of,  164;  King  Wu 
condemns  unfilial  behaviour, 
164;  all  generous  conduct 
flows  from,  164,  165;  cannot 
exist  without  benevolence, 
165;  son's  care  for  aging 
parents  should  be  like  that  of 
mother,  165 ;  son  must  not  go 
abroad  during  life  of  parents, 

165 

Fortitude,  53-58:  Want  of 
54;  boldness  may  be  result 
of  ignorance  as  well  as  of 
knowledge,  56;  not  valour 
only,  if  unobservant  of  pro- 
priety, 56;  men  of  principles 
possess,  but  others  may  also, 
57;  need  of  57;  shame  of 
moral  cowardice,  57;  noble 
attributes  adverted  to  by 
Confucius,  58 

Friendship:  Advantageous 
and  injurious,  126;  enjoy- 
ment in  having  many  worthy, 
126;  youth  should  cultivate, 
of  the  good,  126;  frequent 
reproof  between  friends 
makes  distant,  128;  friends 
should  be  shown  sincerity, 
128;  "have  no  friends  not 
equal  to  yourself,"  129; 
house  of  a  friend,  131;  prac- 
tise of  virtue,  131;  observ- 
ance of  propriety,  131 


Gain:  Love  of,  40;  rewards  of, 
41 ;  love  of  riches  demoraliz- 
ing, 41,  42;  complete  man  in 


312 


Index 


Gain — Continued 

view  of  gain  thinks  of  right- 
eousness, 50;  mind  of  ordin- 
ary man  conversant  with,  71 ; 
nine  things  enumerated  by 
Confucius  as  regards  which 
man  must  keep  watch  over- 
himself,  72;  "wealth  got  by 
improper  means,"  94;  ava- 
rice, the  old  man's  vice,  94; 
who  acts  with  view  to  his 
own  advantage,  94 

Genius  and  Inspiration,  27- 
29:  Its  possessors,  28 

God,  293-298 :  Does  He  hate? 
293;  appellation  which  indi- 
cates personality,  293;  said 
to  King  Wang,  294;  rise 
from  primitive  barbarity  to 
the  worship  of,  294;  "to 
serve  the  spirits  of  the  de- 
parted and  God,"  295;  ex- 
alted conception  of,  295; 
liberties  with  spiritual  beings, 
295;  seeking  Divine  enlight- 
enment, 296;  basis  for  the 
"Yi,"  296;  mention  of  per- 
sonal name,  297 ;  did  not  use 
private  judgment  in  serving, 
297;  "Do  not  try  to  fathom 
what  has  not  yet  arrived," 
297;  Confucius'  own  view  of, 
clearly  enunciated,  298 

Government,  Essentials  of 
Good,  183-189:  Requisites, 
183;  root  and  fruit  of,  184; 
people's  confidence  neces- 
sary, 184;  kingly  govern- 
ment described  by  Mencius, 
184,  185;  attainment  of 
imperial  sway,  185;  Con- 
fucius commends  the  con- 
ception of  Yen  Yuan,  186; 
five  blessings  and  six  calam- 
ities, 186;  consequences  of 
perversion  of  government 
related  in  the  "History  of 
Han,"  186,  187,  188;  Con- 
fucius lays  bare  cause  creat- 
ing such  consequences,  188 


Government,  for  Benefit 
of  the  Governed,  176-183: 
When  good  government  ob- 
tains, 176;  people  important 
element,  176;  government 
should  be  fraternal  and 
parental,  176;  attracts  re- 
mote people,  177;  first  step 
in  kingly  government,  177; 
regulation  of  livelihoods,  178 ; 
attraction  of,  1 78 ;  centraliza- 
tion of  wealth,  179;  ad- 
monition of  Mencius,  180; 
a  people  prosperous  or  in 
want,  so  the  king  must  be, 
180;  responsibility  for  evil 
conditions,  180,  181;  relation 
between  superiors  and  in- 
feriors, 181 ;  attitude  toward 
guilty,  181;  attitude  toward 
the  aged  and  the  young, 
182;  when  right  principles 
prevail,  182;  requisite  for 
attainment  of  anti-poverty 
aspirations,  182;  how  his 
disciples  considered  Con- 
fucius would  govern,  182,  183 

Government, Foundation  of, 
172-174:  Where  lessons  of 
statecraft  may  be  learned, 
172;  significance  of  such 
basis  for  government,  173; 
results  deduced  from  three 
primary  functions  of  family, 
173;  practical  character  of 
this  application,  173;  Con- 
fucius cites  Book  of  Odes  as 
elucidation,  174;  causal  rela- 
tions between  filial  piety  and 
beneficent  government,   174 

Government,  Function  of, 
174-176:  Meaning  of,  174; 
lessons  insisted  upon  by 
Chinese  sages,  174;  cause 
and  effect  in  the  operation 
of,  175;  modes  by  which  this 
may  be  accomplished,   175 

Government  Is  by  Consent 
of  the  Governed,  241- 
245:  View  of  Confucius  con- 


Index 


3i3 


Government — Continued 
coming,  241;  that  Kee  and 
Chow  lost  the  empire,  due 
to  loss  of  people,  241;  the 
truly  royal  ruler,  242;  sage 
docs  not  commend  acts  of 
demagogue,  242;  reward  for 
serving  people,  242;  moral 
sense  of  common  people,  242 ; 
no  invariable  model  of  vir- 
tue, 243;  conformity  to  com- 
mon consciousness,  24,3 ; 
people  sole  source  of  power, 
243,  244;  merit  produces 
confidence  of  people  in  ruler, 
244;  divine  right  of  kings, 
244;  noble  birth,  245;  exist- 
ence of  hereditary  monarchy 
deplored,  245 


H 

Heaven:  Sincerity  the  path  to, 
35;  though  awful,  helps  the 
sincere,  35,  292 ;  when  about 
to  confer  great  office  dis- 
ciplines, 52,  291;  superior 
man  waits  the  appointments 
of,  68,  289 ;  subjects  of  which 
the  Master  seldom  spoke,  92 ; 
riches  and  honours  depend 
upon,  92,  291 ;  a  tcrnion,  145, 
288 ;  alone  cannot  produce  a 
man,  145;  anyone  may  be 
called  the  son  of,  145;  is  to 
use  your  Master,  239;  does 
not  speak,  244;  gave  Shun 
the  empire,  244;  sees  and 
hears  as  my  people,  244;  like 
unto,  280;  in  order  to  know 
men,  284;  if  there  were  no  in- 
tercommunication between 
earth  and,  285;  descents 
of  spirits  ceased  because  he 
commissioned  ...  to  end 
communication  b  e  t  w  e  e  n 
earth  and,  285;  "all  things 
are  being  continually  pro- 
duced, "285;  display  of  pow- 


ers of  spiritual  beings,  285, 
286;  "presence  of  invisible 
witnesses,"  286;  knows  me 
286;  greatest  of  joint  offices 
of  earth  and,  286;  and  earth 
separate  yet  work  together, 
286;  man  product  of  attri- 
butes of  earth  and,  286; 
theory  of  dual  forces  of 
nature,  287;  addressed  in 
prayer,  287;  he  who  offends 
against, 287;  Confucius'  com- 
mendation of  prayer,  287; 
the  peer  of,  288;  only  per- 
son having  greatest  sin- 
cerity that  can  exist  under, 
who  can  comprehend  pro- 
cesses of,  288;  without  recog- 
nizing ordinances  of,  impos- 
sible to  be  superior  man, 
288;  see  also  Providence 

High  Aim:  Essential  to  great 
merit,  43 

Humility,  80-85:  Superior 
man  ebneerned  with  making 
himself  worthy,  80;  spirit 
of  humility  which  is  essential 
to  self-development,  81;  in- 
junction accredited  to  1  Yin, 
81 ;  the  way  to  lose  goodness, 
<s  1  ;  considering  in  all,  how 
to  avoid  errors,  81;  difficult 
to  receive  reproof,  82;  ruin- 
ous consequences  of  false 
pride,  82;  giving  first  place 
to  others,  82;  Confucius  ad- 
monishes how  to  regard 
superior  and  inferior  men, 
82,  83;  difficulty  of  meeting 
this  test,  83;  avoidance  of 
thought  of  personal  success, 
83J  desirability  of  being 
willing  to  work  without 
[aim  of  others,  84;  tribute 
tn  Eiwuy,  84 


Idleness:  Even  gaming  pre- 
ferable, 39 


314 


Index 


K 

Kingly  Qualities,  210-216: 
Potency  of  being  a  man,  210; 
when  people  imitate  great 
ruler,  210;  Shun  an  example 
of,  211;  like  majesty  as- 
scribed  also  to  Yu,  211; 
power  of  character  in  en- 
forcing beneficent  govern- 
ment, 211;  necessity  of  cor- 
rect conduct,  212;  he  who 
exercises  government  by 
means  of  virtue  compared  to 
north  star,  212;  people 
respond  to  calls  for  service, 
212;  superior  man  rules 
without  rewards  or  force, 
213;  consequences  of  qual- 
ities opposite  to  those  of 
virtue,  213;  picture  of 
worthy  ruler,  213;  qualities 
characterizing  great  minister 
defined,  214;  qualities  neces- 
sary to  constitute  one  an 
officer,  214;  qualities  re- 
counted, 214,  215;  success 
as  measured  by  Confucius  in 
reference  to  Chinese  history, 
216;  power  of  attraction  in, 
216 

L 

Language:  That  of  superior 
man  firm  and  decided,  64; 
sufficient  that  it  convey 
meaning,  115;  without  know- 
ing force  of  words  impossible 
to  know  men,  115;  virtuous 
will  be  sure  to  speak  aright, 
115;  style  prized  in  conver- 
sation, 255;  "Yi  King" 
written  in  symbolic,  283; 
superior  man  requires  that 
in,  there  be  nothing  inac- 
curate, 254 

Law  and  Order,  231-238: 
Government  good  when  each 
is  in  his  place,  231;  when 
good,  ceremonies,  music,  etc., 


proceed  from  emperor,  231; 
perils  of  private  wealth  and 
power,  232 ;  destructive  con- 
sequences of  inherited  riches, 
233i  consequences  of  dis- 
order, 233;  duty  of  care  in 
selection  of  administrative 
officers,  233;  discrimination 
in  recognition  and  employ- 
ment of  men,  234;  virtuous 
prince  does  not  neglect  rela- 
tives, 234;  to  be  thinking 
only  of  one's  salary  either 
in  good  or  bad  government, 
shameful,  234;  better  to 
wait  for  death  before  con- 
ferring honours,  235;  ele- 
mental principles  of  right 
and  wrong  applicable  alike 
to  prince  and  minister,  235; 
"affairs  of  state  should  not 
be  privately  discussed,  "  235; 
rule  for  a  judge,  235 ;  crimi- 
nality is  in  intent,  236;  bet- 
ter to  err  than  put  innocent 
person  to  death,  236;  com- 
pensation of  public  officers, 
236;  restriction  of  military 
defence  and  equipment,  237; 
the  superior  man  governs 
men  according  to  their  na- 
ture, 237;  application  to 
business  essential,  237;  ac- 
tions should  be  lofty  and 
bold,  238;  manner  in  which 
a  state  may  crumble,  238 
Learning,  20-27:  Without 
thought,  20;  essential  in  all 
things,  21;  Confucius'  eager 
pursuit  of,  22 ;  superior  man 
loves,  22;  requirements  es- 
sential to,  22;  one  must  be 
modest  as  to  ability,  22; 
may  learn  from  humblest, 
23;  abolishes  class  distinc- 
tions, 23;  knowledge  not  to 
be  imparted  to  all,  23;  per- 
sistent devotion  to,  24;  the 
foundation  for  virtue,  24, 
25;  not  foundation  for  idle 


Index 


3i5 


Learning — Continued 

speculation,  25;  all  know- 
ledge its  field,  20;  great  and 
all  important  place  of,  27; 
anciently  "with  a  view  to 
.improvement,"  now  "to  the 
approbation  of  others,"  89 

Life:  Not  valued  above  virtue, 
50;  never  saw  one  die  "by 
treading  the  path  of  virtue,  " 

51 
Long  Life:  Not  for  those  who 
seek  pleasure,  38 

M 

Man,  The  Great:  He  who 
docs  not  lose  his  child 
heart,  3 1 ;  those  who  follow 
great  part  of  themselves  are, 
46;  speaks  and  does  what  is 
right,  78;  is  in  harmony  with 
spiritual  operations  of  Pro- 
vidence, 293 

Man,  The  Sincere:  Isasupe- 
riorman,  31 ;  will  choose  the 
good,  32;  will  develop  his 
character,  32;  alone  can 
fully  do  so,  32 ;  develops  the 
good  in  others,  33;  alone 
can  transform,  33;  readily 
discerns  and  even  foreknows, 
33,  34;  absolutely  essential, 
35;  helped  by  Heaven,  35 

Man,  The  Superior:  Learns 
for  what  special  purpose?  2; 
is  self-centred,  2;  enjoined 
to  emulate,  2;  is  sincere  and 
thorough,  3,  31;  is  truthful 
and  truth-loving,  3 ;  is  broad- 
minded  3,  6;  thinks  of  virtue 
3,  4;  is  composed,  4;  avoids 
sycophancy,  5;  is  frank,  5; 
is  benevolent,  5;  is  temper- 
ate, 6;  observes  golden  rule, 
6;  what  constitutes,  8;  loves 
learning  and  to  learn,  22; 
progress  upward,  37;  not 
self-indulgent,  40;  free  from 
anxieties,    perplexities,   and 


fear,  55,  56;  WaltS  for  ap- 
pointments of  H 
not  always  virtuous,  inferior 
man  never,  71 ;  made  gr- 
by  propriety,  100;  influence 
01,  [06;  his  demeanour,  108; 
values  his  word,  114;  loves 
on  ground  of  merit,  ijj; 
hatreds  of ,  125;  not  niggard- 
ly toward  parents,  160;  will 
overlook  errors  of  father, 
162;  filial  piety  of,  173;  re- 
quires in  his  language  that 
there  be  nothing  inaccurate, 
254;  meets  friends  on  liter- 
ary grounds,  255;  without 
recognizing  ordinances  of 
Heaven,  impossible  to  be, 
288 

Mean,  Path  of  (Moderation), 
64-69:  Hold  fast  to,  64; 
not  walked  in,  64;  defined, 
65;  virtue  perfect  which  is 
according  to,  65;  why  it  is 
not  walked  in,  65;  difficulty 
in  keeping,  66;  course  can- 
not be  attained  to,  66;  not 
far  from  man,  66;  "the  path 
of  duty  lies  in  what  is  near 
.  .  .  and  is  easy,"  66;  not 
hard  to  find,  66;  utmost 
reach  shines  brightly,  67; 
doing  the  proper  thing  in  all 
situations,  67;  lies  before 
every  man,  68;  only  in  per- 
fect virtue  can  all  its  courses 
be  realized,  therefore  supe- 
rior man  honours  virtuous 
nature,  68;  qualities  of  man 
who  follows,  68,  69;  mar- 
vellous reward  of  following, 
69. 

Mental  Deformity:  Winn 
mind  is  deformed  docs  not 
know  that  he  should  be  dis- 
satisfied, 13 

Mental  Morality  or  Hon- 
esty: Essential  of  all  moral- 
ity, 12;  mind  must  first  be 
honest  with  itself,  14 


316 


Index 


Military  Equipment,  207- 
210:  To  lead  uninstructed 
people  to  war,  207;  Confu- 
cius' references  to  war,  207; 
let  a  good  man  teach  the 
people,  207;  requisites  of 
a  military  leader,  according 
to  Confucius,  208 ;  China  the 
only  one  of  the  great  nations 
which  has  maintained  real 
continuity  for  itself,  208; 
necessity  for  the  spirit  of 
patriotic  devotion,  208;  mili- 
tary forces  should  not  be  such 
as  to  overawe  a  people,  209 ; 
prosperity  and  virtue  of  the 
people  essential  to  military 
success,  209 ;  material  advan- 
tages do  not  compensate  for 
absence  of  spiritual  union  of 
men,  210 

Music,  255-263:  Indispensable 
to  human  nature,  255;  blos- 
soming of  virtue,  255;  tradi- 
tion of  Chinese,  256;  virtue 
and,  256;  expression  of  joy, 
256;  at  meals,  256;  most 
significant  of  traditions,  256, 
257;  source  of,  257;  evil 
forms  of,  257;  relation  of 
evil  spirits  to  evil  notes,  257; 
relation  of  good  spirits  to 
good  notes,  257;  labours  of 
Confucius  in  perfecting,  258; 
in  an  age  of  disorder,  258; 
discrimination  in,  258;  Con- 
fucius' appreciation  of  "The 
Shaou, "  258;  "The  Kwan 
Ts'eu"  and  Confucius'  liking 
for  it,  259;  style  of,  259; 
Confucius  rebukes  demoral- 
izing musical  orgies,  260; 
"  Are  bells  and  drums  all  that 
is  meant  by  music?"  260; 
distinction  between  sound 
and,  260;  purity  of  taste  in, 
260;  Confucius  admonishes 
his  son  to  study,  261;  Con- 
fucius a  performer  upon  the 
musical  stone,  261;  descrip- 


tion of  orchestral,  261;  har- 
mony principal  thing  sought 
in,  261;  occasions  upon 
which  Confucius  would  ac- 
company with  his  own  voice, 
262;  preference  for  methods 
of  ancient  masters,  262; 
three  things  in  which  may  be 
found  advantageous  enjoy- 
ment, 262;  affecting  the 
moral  nature,  262 ;  the  mas- 
tery of,  263;  should  be  ne- 
glected by  no  one,  263 

O 

Office,  Duty  Respecting 
Acceptance  of,  238-241 : 
When  right  principles  pre- 
vail, 238;  informing  a  new 
minister  of  the  conduct  of 
government,  238;  in  good 
government,  in  office;  in  bad, 
keep  your  own  counsel,  239; 
part  of  wise  man  to  quit 
badly  governed  state,  239; 
Hwuy's  answer  to  suggestion 
that  he  quit  the  country, 
239 ;  Confucius  to  be  used  as  a 
"wooden-tonguedbell,"  239; 
when  called  to  office  under- 
take its  duties,  240 ;  one  not  in 
office-has  nothing  to  do  with 
its  administration  duties, 
240;  Confucius  commends 
refusal  to  accept  even  ex- 
alted official  position,  240; 
ambition  for  public  service 
recommended  by  Confucius 
to  his  disciples,  240;  when 
conscious  of  ability  to  render 
service,  not  to  take  office  is 
wrong,  241 

Official  Example,  Power  of, 
216-221:  Ruler  must  be 
possessed  of  qualities  he 
requires  of  people,  217;  what 
superior  man  loves,  his  infe- 
riors will  also  love,  217;  he 
who  is  in  authority  should  be 


Index 


W 


Official  Example — Continued 
careful  about  what  he  likes 
and  dislikes,  217;  connection 
With  filial  piety,  217,  218; 
government  dependent  upon 
personal  conduct  of  prime, 
218;  reason  for  greater  po- 
tency of  deed  than  command 
in  a  ruler,  219;  Confucius 
deprecates  niggardliness,-'  1 9 ; 
too  much  must  not  be  ex- 
pected from  a  good  official 
when  government  has  been 
long  in  state  of  demoraliza- 
tion, 219;  Confucius  urges 
that  ruler  rely  upon  persua- 
sion rather  than  penalties 
in  ruling,  219;  desiring  what 
is  good,  220;  Confucius'  rule 
for  suppressing  thieves,  220; 
three  principles  of  conduct 
for  men  of  high  rank,  220; 
where  the  real  responsibility 
rests,  220,  221 


Parenthood,  151- 156:  Affec- 
tion of  father  and  mother, 
151,  152;  justice  and  dis- 
crimination of  superior  man 
in,  152;  reciprocal  relations, 
152 ;  extent  of  its  application 
152;  cultivation  of  filial 
qualities  in  children  brings 
happiness  to  parents,  153; 
cultivation  of  opposite  quali- 
ties, 153;  youth  to  be  re- 
garded with  respect,  153; 
one  of  three  things  Confucius 
especially  enjoins,  154;  re- 
sponsibilities of  father,  154; 
parent  should  maintain  re- 
serve toward  son,  154;  father 
should  keep  himse'f  hero  in 
eyes  of  son,  154;  should  not 
be  son's  tutor,  155;  should 
be  no  reproving  admonitions 
between  father  and  son,  155; 
all  men  sons  of  God,  therefore 


father     has     not     absolute 
power  over  son,  156 

Parents,  Pious  Regard 
after  Death  of,  165-171: 
Filial  piety  displayed  in 
carrying  forward  undertak- 
ings of  forefathers,  166;  when 
son  may  be  called  filial,  100; 
deepsi  >m  >w  bet  terthan  punc- 
tilious observance  in  mourn- 
ing, 166;  origin  of  burial, 
166;  avenging  one's  father, 
if  slain,  107;  complete  duty 
of  living  men,  167,  168;  oc- 
casions of  mourning  disclose 
a  son's  character,  168;  com- 
ment upon  mere  show  in 
mourning,  168;  period  of 
mourning,  168;  after  expira- 
tion of  term  of  retirement, 
169;  greatest  of  all  obliga- 
tion to  parents,  169;  im- 
portance of  this  phase  of  the 
Confucian  conception  of  fil- 
ial piety,  169;  son  watches 
actions  that  bad  name  may 
not  be  handed  down,  170; 
constant  reverence  for  par- 
ents, 171 

Parents,  Pious  Regard  for 
Living,  159-165:  Three  de- 
grees of  filial  piety,  159,  160; 
nature  of  filial  piety  toward, 
160;  duty  to  support,  160; 
superior  man  will  not  be 
niggardly  toward,  160;  sacri- 
fice of  personal  comforts, 
160;  relieving  them  of  toil, 
161;  respect  and  obedience 
necessary,  161;  when  war- 
ranted a  son  should  not 
refrain  from  remonstrating 
with  his  father,  162;  should 
persist  with  reverence  if  met 
with  opposition,  162;  supe- 
rior man  will  not  magnify 
errors  of  father,  162;  reproof 
between  father  and  son 
hindrance  to  tenderness,  162 ; 
five  unfilial  acts,    163;  apo- 


3i8 


Indey 


Parents — Continued 

cryphal  story  of  filial  piety 
of  Shun,  163;  greatest  of 
unfilial  acts,  163;  tests  of 
filial  piety,  164;  unfilial 
crime  to  fail  in  reverence 
and  wound  a  father's  heart, 
164;  root  of  all  benevolent 
actions,  165;  man  trained  to 
benevolence  never  forgets 
his  parents,  165;  while  par- 
ents are  living  son  must 
remain  near  them,  165 

People,  Nourishment  of  the, 
189-199:  Well  governed, 
poverty,  ill  governed,  wealth 
a  disgrace,  189;  sage,  if 
ruler,  will  cause  gain  to  be 
abundant,  190;  how  the 
old  may  be  well  provided 
for,  190;  conservation,  190; 
gain  not  to  be  considered 
prosperity,  but  righteous- 
ness, 191;  no  happiness  if 
ruler  seeks  own  profit,  191; 
picture  of  demoralization  fol- 
lowing unscrupulous  govern- 

.  ment,  191 ;  Mencius  rebukes 
rich  king  who  impoverished 
the  people,  192;  reforms 
should  be  made  slowly,  192; 
"wants  are  limitless;  the 
supply  can  never  be  ade- 
quate," 193;  prevent  the 
rich  from  despoiling  the 
poor,  193;  discontented  man 
will  rebel,  193;  aphorisms  of 
Mencius  upon  ruler  sharing 
the  people's  lot,  194;  Con- 
fucius says  contrary  means 
disloyalty,  194;  account  of 
"Rite  of  District  Drinking," 
195;  Mencius  view  of  what 
good  government  should 
provide,  195;  consequences 
of  evil  government,  195,  196; 
people  in  hard  straits  can- 
not cultivate  righteousness, 
196;  certain  livelihood  for 
the   people   necessary,    197; 


good  government  must  be 
parental,  197;  he  who  con- 
fers benefits  and  assists  all 
is  a  sage,  198;  story  of 
widow  weeping  at  Mount 
Thai,  198 

Phenomena,  Investigation 
of,  16-20:  Necessity  for 
careful  research,  16;  the  in- 
quiring mind,  17,  19;  loss  of 
early  commentary,  18;  Com- 
mentator Ch'ing's  substitute, 
18;  benefit  of  painstaking 
research,  20 

Poetry  and  Letters,  25 1-263: 
If  men  are  "mild,  gentle, 
sincere,  and  good,"  they  have 
been  taught  from  the  Book 
of  Poetry,  251;  designs  of 
the  Book  of  Poetry,  251; 
the  Odes  serve  to  stimulate 
the  mind,  252;  considering 
men  of  antiquity,  252 ;  must 
know  the  Odes  in  order  to 
be  "fit  to  converse  with," 
252;  if  unable  to  make  prac- 
tical application  of  the  Odes, 
though  able  to  repeat  all,  of 
what  use  are  they?  253; 
literary  taste  of  Confucius, 
253;  "of  language,  it  is 
sufficient  that  it  convey 
meaning,"  253;  necessity 
for  correct  names,  253,  254; 
accuracy  in  language,  254; 
diction,  254;  Confucius' 
knowledge  of  the  subtleties 
of  style,  254;  accepted  man- 
ner of  elegant  speech,  255; 
style  prized  in  conversation, 
255;  usefulness  of  letters, 
255;  inadequacy  of  written 
and  spoken  word,  255 

Poise:  What  superior  man 
seeks  is  in  himself;  ordinary 
men  in  others,  58;  would  do 
nothing  merely  to  secure 
fame,  58;  stands  alone,  59; 
reward  of  this  attainment, 
59;   mode   and   manner   of 


Index 


3i9 


Poise — Continued 

such  attainment,  59;  who 
may  be  called  intelligent?  6oj 

superior  man  does  not  antici- 
pate deceit,  but  apprehends 

it,  60;  above  the  power  of 
riches  to  corrupt  and  poverty 
to  swerve,  60;  indispensable, 
60;  examples  of  Slum  and 
Yu,  61;  dignified  case  with- 
out pride,  64;  to  Shun,  Con- 
fucius attributed  perfect,  211 

Political  Economy,  Middle 
Path  in,  199-201:  The  uni- 
versal principle,  199;  Tol- 
stoian  theory  presented  to 
Mcncius,  199,  200;  exchange 
of  products  and  division  of 
labour,  200;  he  who  docs  not 
command  should  obey,  200; 
discussion  of  communistic 
and  anarchistic  plans,  200 

Prejudice,  freedom  from,  15, 
16 

Propriety,  98-106:  When  re- 
spectful of,  98 ;  rules  of,  on 
same  order  as  ordinary  man's 
system  of  morality,  98; 
character  established  by  the 
rules  of,  99 ;  how  they  estab- 
lish the  character,  99;  de- 
praved state  of  men  who 
have  no  conception  of,  99; 
tribute  to  the  superlative 
utility  of,  100;  foundation 
for  sense  of,  100;  Chinese 
tradition  concerning  rules  of, 
100;  rules,  embodied  ex- 
pression of  what  is  right,  101 ; 
"good  form"  not,  101;  con- 
sequences if  rites  of,  are 
neglected,  101;  nine  things 
worthy  of  "thoughtful  con- 
sideration," 101;  is  seen  in 
humbling  one's  self,  103; 
"allows  no  contemptuous 
familiarity,"  103;  humility 
and  dignity  has  ever  char- 
acterized Chinese  concci 
of,  103;  character  of  greater 


importance  than,  104;  urgent 
need  of,  104;  should  n< >\  be 
over-empha  (zed,  104,  105; 
not  to  be  neglected,  105;  the 
man  conversant  with,  105; 
influence  of  such  a  man,  106 
Provideni  1  ,  288  293 :  Ii 
sible  to  be  superior  man 
without  recognizing,  288; 
consequences  of   knowledge 

of  these  laws,  2X')\  awaiting 
the  appointments  of,  289; 
justice  of,  289;  gives  length 
of  days  to  just,  289;  supe- 
rior man  does  not  murmur 
at  decrees  of,  289,  290;  no 
interposition  of,  290;  men 
ruin  themselves,  it  is 
the  impartial  dealing  of, 
290;  "Calamities  sent  by 
Heaven  may  be  avoided," 
but  not  self-caused,  290; 
Confucius'  conception  of, 
290,  291;  "If  Heaven  had 
wished  to  let  this  cause  of 
truth  perish,"  .  .  .  291; 
riches  and  honours  depend 
upon,  291;  "What  Heaven 
confers,  when  once  lost,  will 
not  be  regained,"  291;  dis- 
cipline of,  291;  constant 
requirement  of,  291;  "Awful 
though  Heaven  be  it  helps 
the  sincere,"  292;  intimate 
co-operation  with,  292;  same 
harmony  and  graduation  as 
between  Heaven  and  Earth, 
292;  "Things  that  have  their 
origin  in  Heaven  tend  up- 
ward," 293;  great  man  is  he 
who  is  in  harmony  with  the 
spiritual  operations  of,  293 
Prudence:  "If  a  man  take  no 
thought  about  what  is  dis- 
tant, he  will  find  sorrow  near 
at  hand, "  91 ;  caution  neces- 
sary, 91;  let  there  be 
quate  preparation,  91;  "Do 
not  commence  or  aba 
anything  hastily,"  91;  Con- 


320 


Index 


Prudence — Continued 

fucius  pleads  for,  91,  92; 
sordid  pursuit  of  wealth  to 
be  avoided,  93;  competence 
insured  by  industry  and, 
92,  93;  should  not  degenerate 
into  avarice,  94;  to  guard 
against  speech  and  conduct 
which  cause  dislike,  part  of, 
95;  seif-examination  as  mat- 
ter of,  95;  application  of 
study  of  cause  and  effect 
which  sage  enjoins  upon  his 
disciples,  96;  advantages 
which  attend  this  course,  97; 
need  for  caution  in  giving 
commands,  114;  as  regards 
conversation ,    127 

Purpose  and  Desire,  rectifica- 
tion of,  1,  13,  14,  35,  37 


R 


Riches  and  Honours:  If 
acquired  by  unrighteous- 
ness, a  floating  cloud,  47; 
when  sages  distributed,  188; 
depend  upon  Heaven,  291 

Righteousness,  69-76: 
"What  is  life's  object?"  69; 
if  not  upright,  70;  if,  on  self- 
examination,  I  find  I  am  up- 
right, 70;  "if  the  will  be  set 
on  virtue,"  70;  should  reign 
in  men's  hearts  and  lives, 
70;  a  hard  case  if  men  talk 
not  of,  70;  not  external,  71; 
to  achieve  well  spent  life, 
attainment  of,  necessary,  71 ; 
mind  of  superior  man  con- 
versant with,  71;  by  supe- 
rior man  held  of  highest 
importance,  71;  in  all  things 
essential,  72 ;  normal  attitude 
of,  72;  nine  things  as  re- 
gards which  man  must  keep 
watch  over  himself,  72; 
elements  of,  described,  73; 
in  symbolism,  73,  74;  self- 
righteousness,       74;       must 


coexist  with  shortcomings, 
75;  to  be  considered  in  view 
of  gain,  75;  despairs  of  con- 
stant, 76 


Self-Control:  Want  of,  61; 
need  of,  61;  he  who  has 
formed  worthy  conceptions 
must  not  let  himself  be  led 
astray  in  unguarded  mo- 
ments, 61,  62;  think  twice  or 
thrice  before  acting,  62; 
act  before  speaking  and 
speak  according  to  act,  62; 
prudence  of  this  course,  63; 
portrait  of  man  following 
this  course,  64;  dignity  ac- 
companies, 64;  average  man 
cannot  attain  to  it,  96 

Self-Development:  What 
man  should  strive  for,  7; 
through  renunciation,  7; 
what  constitutes  the  supe- 
rior man?  8;  as  revealed  in 
"The  Great  Learning,"  8,  9; 
order  of,  10;  universal  stand- 
ards for,  10;  Confucius'  ac- 
count of  his  own,  1 1 ;  based 
on  sincerity,  32,  33;  depends 
upon  rectification  of  purpose, 
35;  without,  cannot  regulate 
one's  family,  138;  Chapter 
II.,  pp.  48-97 

Self-Examination:  Requisite 
to  explain  disappointments, 
42,  43,  44,  45;  if  it  discovers 
nothing  wrong  .  .  .  what 
is  there  to  fear?  58;  if  on, 
I  find  I  am  upright,  70; 
examines  his  heart  that  there 
may  be  nothing  wrong  there, 
74;  when  we  see  men  of 
worth,  83;  required  before 
assuming  responsibilities,  95 

Sexual  Purity,  131-136: 
"The  scholar  keeps  himself 
free  from  all  stain, "  131 ;  pas- 
sages illustrating   the  Mas- 


Index 


321 


Sexual  Purity — Continued 
ter's  insistence  upon,  131; 
"a  sage  only  can  satisfy  the 
design  of  his  physical  organ- 
ism," 132;  disorder  would 
follow  were  no  distinction 
made  between  male  and 
female,  133;  male  and  female 
separate  but  seek 
objects,  133;  rules  governing 
the  relations  of,  133;  sepa- 
ration of  sexes  maintained  to 
guard  people,  134;  special 
precautions  to  guard  the 
people  sexually,  134;  young 
people  should  await  media- 
tion of  parents,  135;  "a 
woman's  adorning  herself  ex- 
cites lust,"  135;  man  should 
not  die  in  a  woman's  arms, 
135;  woman's  sphere,  135, 
136;  severity  of  rules  en- 
joined by  Confucius  in  mat- 
ter of  avoiding  temptation, 
136 

Sincerity:  Flows  from  exten- 
sive knowledge,  29,  30; 
childlike  simplicity,  true 
greatness,  31;  faithfulness 
and  sincerity  held  as  first 
principles,  75;  friends  should 
be  shown,  128.  See  also 
Man,  The  Sincere 

Speech,  Propriety  of,  113- 
120:  Smartness  of,  113;  for 
one  word  man  often  deemed 
wise  or  foolish,  113;  should 
be  cautious  about  making 
rash  promises,  113;  superior 
man  values  his  word,  113, 
1 14; need  for  caution  in  giv- 
ing commands,  114;  proper 
admonition  of  a  friend,  114; 
reproof  is  useless,  warnings 
useful,  114;  futility  of  refer- 
ence to  the  past,  114;  must 
not  be  misled  by  fair  words, 
115;  candour  of  speech  and 
earnestness  of  conduct,  115; 
superior  men  of  old  did  not 


speak  of  old  affairs,  116; 
superior  man  careful  to 
maintain  secrecy,  116;  can- 
dour of,  116;  fine  words  con- 
demned when  resentment  is 
in  one's  heart,  116;  "specious 
words  confound  virtue,"  118; 
excessive  candour  possible, 
118;  Confucius  practises  po- 
lite evasion,  119;  misery  to 
those  who  talk  of  what  is  not 
good  in  others,  119;  straight- 
forwardness without  pro- 
priety, rudeness,  120 

Speech  and  Action,  Caution 
in  :  Act  first,  speak  in  accord- 
ance, 62 ;  reasons  for  caution 
in  speech,  62;  a  word  spoken 
amiss  cannot  be  mended,  63; 
listen  before  speaking,  63; 
results  of  undertaking  too 
much,  93 

Spiritual  Beings,  and  Power, 
280-284:  Honouring  of,  281 ; 
broader  purpose  of  sacrifice 
to  ancestors,  281;  mastery 
of  the  inscrutable  and  spirit- 
ual, 281;  keeping  aloof 
from,  282;  subject  on  which 
Confucius  did  not  talk,  282; 
permeate  all  things,  282; 
spirit,  the  subtle  element  of 
all  things,  282;  presence  of 
spiritual  power,  283;  pre- 
sence of,  unfathomable,  283; 
similarity  of  ancient  and 
modern  view,  283;  flow  of 
phenomena,  283;  he  who 
knows  what  is  done  by,  283 ; 
when  personal  character  is 
like  that  of,  284;  he  who  is 
possessed  of  completest  sin- 
cerity is  like  a  spirit,  284 


Taxation,  Innocent  and  De- 
structive, 203-207:  Impo- 
sition of  import  duties  con- 
demned,     203;     origin      of 


322 


Index 


Taxation — Continued 

"ground  rents,"  203,  204; 
Mencius  condemns  import 
and  excise  duties,  205;  sys- 
tem of  tithing  explained  and 
commended,  206;  same  con- 
trasted and  favoured  over 
land  tax,  206 

Thought  or  Thinking:  Su- 
perior man  must  be  watchful 
over  himself  when  alone,  3; 
without  learning,  20 

Truth,  Love  of:  Superior 
man  anxious  lest  he  should 
not  get  truth,  15;  they  who 
know  truth  not  equal  to 
those  who  love  truth,  15; 
"I  know  not  how  a  man 
without  truthfulness  is  to 
get  on,"  116 


V 


Virtue  :Knowledge,  its  founda- 
tion, 24,  32;  one  must  him- 
self perform,  29;  "perfect," 
five  points  of,  31 ;  "comfort, " 
its  antithesis,  3,  39,  40,  51; 
its  own  chief  reward,  41 ; 
Confucius  finds  love  of 
beauty  greater  than  love  of, 
44;  if  will  set  on,  no  practise 
of  wickedness,  48,  49;  "per- 
fect," is  to  subdue  one's  self, 
49;  firm,  enduring,  simple, 
unpretentious,  near  to,  49; 
man  of  virtue  will  not  live 
at  expense  of,  50;  never  saw 
one  die  by  treading  path  of, 
51;  emulation  enjoined  of 
perfect,  52;  not  remote,  but 
at  hand,  53;  what  is?  53; 
one  cannot  stand  adversity 
or  prosperity  without,  56; 
acting  virtuously,  what  is 
there  to  repine  about?  57; 
Confucius  defines  perfect, 
63 ;  superior  man  not  always 
virtuous,  inferior,  never,  71; 
they  will  even  sacrifice  their 


lives  to  preserve,  75;  "there 
is  that  which  I  prize  more 
than  life,"  75;  superior  man 
never  acts  contrary  to  virtue 
76;  virtuous  rest  in,  wise 
desire,  76;  "I  have  not  seen 
a  person  who  loved,"  76; 
subjects  of  which  the  Master 
seldom  spoke,  92 ;  fine  words 
and  insinuating  manner  sel- 
dom associated  with,  107; 
man  of  perfect  virtue  to  con- 
firm himself,  confirms  others, 
122;  only  virtuous  man  who 
can  love  or  hate,  124;  is 
self-realization,  265 
Villages,  Good,  Careful 
People  of  the:  Thieves  of 
virtue,  40;  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  virtuous, 
40 

W 

Wedlock,  140-146:  Propri- 
ety begins  with  careful  atten- 
tion to  marriage  relations, 
140;  necessity  of  marriage 
ceremony,  140;  such  cere- 
mon)''  lies  at  foundation  of 
government,  140;  duties  be- 
tween husband  and  wife, 
141 ;  in  taking  a  wife,  not  one 
of  the  same  surname,  141; 
rank  of  wife,  142;  marriage 
ceremony,  142;  Confucius 
considers  no  ceremony  too 
great,  143;  mother's  admon- 
ition to  daughter  about  to 
wed,  143;  no  girl  learns  to 
rear  child  in  order  to  many, 
144;  a  ternion,  145;  Heaven 
alone  cannot  produce  a  man, 
145;  anyone  may  be  called 
son  of  Heaven,  145;  God 
creator  of  all  men,  146; 
"faithfulness  the  virtue  of 
a  wife,"  who  will  not  re- 
marry, 146 


Index 


V3 


Widows,  Orphans,  Provision 
for,  201-203:  Ideal  con- 
dition   de  1  i  ibed    in    "The 

C.iand  Course,"  201  ;  pi 

who  knew  how  to  cherish 
old,  sure  of  Favour,  201;  of 
the  three  great  kings  not 
one  neglected  age,  202;  five 
things  by  which  ancient 
kings  secured  good  govern- 
ment, 202;  aged  men  did  not 
carry  burdens,  202;  system 


of  mutual  aid  described  by 
Mencius,  202,  203;  equaliza- 
tion of  seed  and  of  yii  Id,  203 
Will,  48-53:    It"  set  on  virtue, 

no  practise  of  wickedness, 
48,  49,  70;  of  even  a  common 
man  cannot  be  taken  from 
him,  49;  proved  by  resistance 
49;  costs  nothing  to,  51; 
should  be  set  on  path  of  duty 
52;  development  of,  53, 
what  is  the?  53 


Buddha 

and  (he 

Gospel  of   Buddhism 

By 

Ananda  Coomaraswamy,  D.Sc. 

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A  full  account  of  the  Gospel  of  Ear- 
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duism. Analogies  are  also  pointed  out 
with  the  religious  thought  of  the  West. 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  London 


@i 


Proverbs,  Phrases,  and 
Maxims 

Of  All  Ages 


By  R.  Christy 


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CLASSIFIED  SUBJECTIVELY  AND 
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HTHE  GREAT  VALUE  OF  PROVERBS,  in- 
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sary to  have  the  initial  words. 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

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Knowledge  and  Life 

By  Rudolf  Eucken 

Author  of  "The  Truth  of  Religion,"  "The  Life 
of  the  Spirit " 


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G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  London 


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By  F.  B.  JEVONS,  Litt.D. 

Author  of 

"The  Idea  of  God,"  "Comparative 

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G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  London 


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